ah 


Ehaenas 
Ser 


eraette sts 


— 5 
St 


SHS 


Secrets r — 
tan ey tert : pees 




















j 


YARN) 


aha 





} 
{ 





on int ¥ 





seer Ua tats») 


wth ia 
| } ‘ 9 , 











rf .: r 
he 
i 
‘ =n 
' 
" 
Tt ; SA 
: . 6 we. 
" : 
i 
. 5 
4 ina ik 
ogt 
~ YT - 
\ 
1s 
’ 
i . 
{ * 
» 4 - 
\ 
i i 
r p i 
‘ ‘ v ' " 1 i 
: hae” ; a 
: ‘ , 
i *. i 
? i o , j . 
la i d “i sy . 
' ae yy 1 
j j ‘ 
Tr th , 
: " \ ‘ i 
¥ 
; ' 
+ F : 
. ‘ 
a , ‘ ' ma. 
"ie ’ 7 . 
ft 
. ' \ 
‘ 
J . ty 
: I ‘ 
i 
1 
’ 
% 
* \ 
' 
¥ % 
4 
. ot 
a 
' ‘ 
% 
+ 
' e 
eS ‘ 
: —.. 
¢ 
| 
eB 
‘ 
‘ 
~ 
, 
' a 
bay t 
; 





THE LATER 
CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED TO 
LEONARD GOW 








fae PATER CERAMIC 
WARES OF CHINA 


BEING THE BLUE AND WHITE, FAMILLE VERTE, 
FAMILLE ROSE, MONOCHROMES, ETC., OF THE 
K‘ANG HSI, YUNG CHENG, CH‘IEN LUNG AND 
OTHER PERIODS OF THE CH‘ING DYNASTY 


BY R. L. HOBSON 


KEEPER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CERAMICS 
AND ETHNOGRAPHY, BRITISH MUSEUM 


AUTHOR OF ‘*CHINESE POTTERY AND PORCELAIN’ 
‘*THE WARES OF THE MING DYNASTY,”’ ETC. ETC. 


NEW YORK 
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 


1925 








PRINTED AND MA’ 


fn 
¥ 


’ 
A 





) at 


TRARY 


JHE GETTY GEN” 
uP q 


PREFACE 


The Later Ceramic Wares of China is the natural sequel to the Wares of 
the Ming Dynasty, and it carries the story of Chinese pottery and porcelain 
down to our own times, completing the trilogy which started with the 
Early Ceramic Wares of China. It deals with the potter’s art under the 
Ch‘ing dynasty of the Manchus (1644-1912). 

The names of three chief Manchu emperors, K‘ang Hsi, Yung Chéng 
and Ch‘ien Lung, are household words with collectors of porcelain; and 
the book is mainly devoted to the porcelain made during those three 
famous reigns at Ching-té Chén, the Ceramic metropolis of China. There 
are chapters on the pottery, stoneware and porcelain made at other centres 
and a few plates to illustrate them, but they occupy a relatively small 
part of the whole. There is nothing disproportionate, however, in this 
division of the subject, from the collector’s point of view, for it can be said 
without exaggeration that 90 per cent of the Manchu wares in European 
collections were made at Ching-té Chén. 

In setting out such information as the collector will require on the Manchu 
porcelain, we are covering familiar ground. There is little scope here 
for original research, and we can only aim at bringing the subject-matter 
up to date and making certain necessary emendations. There is, however, 
plenty of scope for variety in illustrations and I have endeavoured to 
represent all the principal types, not so much from the public collections, 
which are well known, as from the best private collections which the 
public has less opportunity of seeing. Such a plan was only practicable 
with the sympathetic co-operation of the many collectors whose names 
appear in the list of plates. To all of these I tender my sincere thanks for 
their invaluable help, and particularly to Mr. Leonard Gow who most 
generously gave me the use of a large number of colour-blocks illustrating 
part of his choice collection. 

The romanization of Chinese characters and place-names is that used 
in the other volumes of the series, and my thanks are due to Dr. Lionel 
Giles for special attention to these while looking over my proofs. 


R. L, Hopson, 
November, 1924. 


Bee vias AS 


\ 
? 
Se 


4 "5 


r lal Ot 
ee 


Daa he as a 
aii 





CONTENTS 


Preface 5 ‘ : 4 : . 4 Vv 
List of Illustrations . . ; : : : : A i ihe 
Selected Bibliography : : . : : : ; + XXtiit 


Introduction . . ; : ; é ; . - . XXV 


Chapter I. Historical and General . : : : I 


Chapter II, The Early Ch‘ing Ware and K‘ang Hsi Blue and 
White ‘ : : : : : é 8 


Chapter III. Famille Verte Porcelain Enamelled on the Biscuit. 23 
Chapter IV. Famille Verte Porcelain Enamelled on the Glaze . 32 
Chapter V. K‘ang Hsi Monochrome Porcelain . s AL 


Chapter VI. K‘ang Hsi Monochromes (contd.) and Coloured 
Glazes : : : ‘ : : aL 


Chapter VII. Yung Chéng Porcelain (1723-35) A : 02 
Chapter VIII. Ch‘ien Lung Porcelain (1736-95) : : 7A 
Chapter IX. The roth-Century Porcelain . ‘ - OT 
Chapter X. European Influences on Chinese Porcelain eo 
Chapter XI. The Porcelain of Fukien . 5 : : - 104 
Chapter XII. Pottery of the Ch’ing Dynasty . - ; ELOF 
Chapter XIII. Chinese Ceramic Shapes . : : : Sees 
Chapter XIV. The Designs on Chinese Pottery and Porcelain . 120 
Chapter XV. Marks . 3 : : . : : . 139 


Index . : . : : 4 . : : ; er ST 


Vil 











¥ 
4 a 
iP 
ra 
‘ 
i 
’ 
‘ 





LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES IN COLOUR 


One of a pair of beakers of bronze form. K‘ang Hsi period 
Frontispiece 

In the possession of Mr. Henry Hirsch 
Vase and cover with design of ascending and descending 


prunus sprays in white on a cracked ice ground. K‘ang 
Hsi porcelain . : . : 


In the possession of Mr. Gaspard Farrer 


Pair of figures of a man and a lady with asquirrel. K‘ang Hsi 
porcelain . : ; : : : 3 Fig, 1 


Bowl with design of cranes and lotus plants ina yellow ground. 


K‘ang Hsi porcelain . : , Fig, 2 

In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Teapot of bamboo pattern : A : - Fig, 1 
Teapot, hexagonal with openwork panels. : Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Pair of parrots on rocks. K‘ang Hsi Porcelain. Figs. 1 and 3 
Marriage cup with archaic dragon handle and symbolic designs. 
K*‘ang Hsi Porcelain . ; ; : ; Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Covered vase (one of a pair). K’‘ang Hsi porcelain Fig, 1 
Figure of a horseman. K‘ang Hsi porcelain ; Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Square, club-shaped vase. K‘ang Hsi period . : : 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Covered vase (one of a pair), hexagonal with moulded leaf 
border on the shoulder. K‘ang Hsi porcelain Fig. 1 
Vase of baluster shape. K‘ang Hsi porcelain : Fig, 2 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Vase (one of a pair) with two handles and moulded panels, 
K‘ang Hsi porcelain . 3 : . . Fig. 3 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 


1x 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 
Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 
Plate 


Plate 


Plate 
Plate 


Plate 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Covered jar. K‘ang Hsi famille jaune : A . : 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Pair of lions, one with ball of brocade and the other with cub. 
K‘ang Hsi porcelain . : : : Figs. 1 and 3 
Hexagonal, club-shaped vase, enamelled on the glaze. K‘ang 
Hsi porcelain . : , : : : Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Pair of figures of a Chinese lady and gentleman. K‘ang Hsi period 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Vase of rouleau form, one of a pair. K‘ang Hsi period . : 
In the possession of Mr. R. T. Woodman 
Pair of yen yen vases. K‘ang Hsi period . : : 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 


Pair of covered jars of potiche form, decorated in famille verte 
enamels on the glaze. K‘ang Hsi period . . : 

In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow ~ 
Dish of famille verte porcelain. K‘ang Hsi mark . A : 


In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Square club-shaped vase with panels of landscape. K‘ang 
Hsi famille verte ; : ; ‘ : Fig, 1 
Rouleau vase similarly decorated. K‘ang Hsi famille verte Fig. 2 
Square club-shaped vase with scenes representing the Four 
Liberal Accomplishments. K‘ang Hsi famille verte Fig. 3 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Bowl decorated with famille verte enamels on the glaze. Kang 
Hsi period A : é : . . 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Two deep bowls with covers. K‘ang Hsi famille verte 
Figs, 1 and 3 
Vase with court scene. K‘ang Hsi famille verte . Fig, 2 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 


Pair of bottle-shaped vases with panels of flowering plants, etc. 
K‘ang Hsi famille verte. ; : Figs, 1 and 3 


In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
x 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plates 


Io 


13 


14 


and I4A 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 
Plate 


Plate 


15 


16 


16 


16 


19 


Dist OFPSILLUSLRATIONS 


Oblate oval jar and cover with similar decoration. K‘ang Hsi 
famille verte . : ‘ : 7 : Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Rouleau vase with large and small panels of ladies and children, 
etc. K’ang Hsi powder-blue, with famille verte panels 
Fig, 1 
Covered vase with panels of flowering plants, birds, etc. 
K*ang Hsi powder-blue, with famille verte panels Fig. 2 
Rouleau vase with large panels of flowering trees and birds. 
K*‘ang Hsi powder-blue, with famille verte panels Fig. 3 
In the possession of Mr. Leonard Gow 
Bottle-shaped vase with lang yao red glaze. K‘ang Hsi period 
In the possession of Mr. F. N. Schiller 


Bottle-shaped vase with cane crackled turquoise glaze. 
K*‘ang Hsi period : ; : Fig, 1 


In the possession of Mr. A. L. Hetherington 
Bowl with engraved five-clawed dragons under a brilliant 
turquoise blue glaze. K‘ang Hsi mark : Fig, 2 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 
Bottle-shaped vase with “apple-green” glaze. Early 18th 
century — >. : > : “ “ : Fig, 1 
Brush-bath of shallow bowl shape with “ peach-bloom ” 
glaze on the side. K‘ang Hsi period . : Fig, 2 
In the possession of Mr. Harvey Hadden 
Bottle-shaped vase with mirror-black glaze with brown reflec- 


tions. K’‘ang Hsi period . : : : 
In the possession of Major Rt. Hon. C. P. Allen 
Vase and cover from a set of five. Yung Chéng period - 


In the possession of Mr. J. B. Joel 
Flower-vase painted in pee Sat Ch‘ien Lung mark in 
mauve enamel . . : Fig, 1 
In the possession of ee P, David 
Bowl painted in Ku-yiieh style . . . : Fig, 2 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 
xi 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


20 


20 


21 


22 


22 


23 


23 


24 


25 


26 


26 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE 


Vase, in form between the kuan-yin and the club shape, finely 
painted in pure sapphire-blue with river scene and men 
fishing with nets from punts. K‘ang Hsi period 


In the possession of Mr. F. N. Schiller 


Cylindrical jar with “ rose and ticket’’ design. K‘ang Hsi 
blue and white . : : . Fig. 1 
In the possession oF Mr. R. T. Woodman 


Triple Gourd vase with bronze designs of ogre heads, etc. 
K‘ang Hsi blue and white . : : : Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


Box with design of prunus blossoms on cracked ice. K‘ang 
Hsi blue and white  . : : Fig, 3 
In the possession of one me T. Warre 


Bottle-shaped vase painted in deep blue with river~scene. 
K*‘ang Hsi blue and white . : ‘ : Fig, 1 


Club-shaped vase painted in deep blue with mountain land- 
scape. K‘ang Hsi blue and white ; ; Fig, 2 


In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


Dish with European men and lady playing on musical instru- 
ments. K’‘ang Hsi blue and white . ) Fig, 3 


In the Manchester City Art Gallery (Leicester 
Collier Collection) 


Kuan-yin vase painted in vivid blue with a ao a from 
waves. K’‘ang Hsi period : : . 
In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


Bottle with raised foliations. K‘ang Hsi blue and white Fig. 1 
In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 
Beaker with magnolia design. pe Hsi blue and white. 
Ch'éng Hua mark . : : ; Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 
Xil 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


Plate 


27 


28 


28 


28 


29 


29 


29 


30 


31 


31 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Dish with moulded foliations. 
Mark, a flower 


In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


K‘ang Hsi blue and white. 
Fig. 3 


Dish with wide gadrooned border and design of phenix, etc. 
K‘ang Hsi blue and white. Mark, Ch‘i yii pao ting chih 
chén . : : : : an Fig. 4 

In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Flower vase with slender ovoid body. “ Steatitic’’ blue and 


white porcelain . : : 2 ; : Fig. 1 
In the possession of Mr. P. David 
Teapot of “ steatitic ”” blue and white . : A Fig, 2 


In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Box of “ steatitic ’’ blue and white. Mark, a plum blossom 


Fig. 3 
In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


Bottle-shaped flower vase of “ steatitic’’ blue and white. 
Yung Chéng mark : ; : Fig. 4 
In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 
Figure of a goose in black, green, yellow, aubergine, etc. K’‘ang 
Hsi porcelain enamelled on the biscuit Fig. 1 

In the possession of Mr. Henry Hirsch 
Marriage cup with archaic dragon handle. K*‘ang Hsi porce- 
lain enamelled on the biscuit Fig. 2 
In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 


Libation cup with ogre heads and archaic dragons. 


K*‘ang 
Hsi porcelain enamelled on the biscuit 


Fig. 1 
Teapot enamelled in colours on a black ground. K’‘ang Hsi 
porcelain enamelled on the biscuit Fig. 2 

In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 

Teapot, yellow and aubergine grounds, with crane and lotuses. 
K’‘ang Hsi porcelain enamelled on the biscuit Fig. 1 

In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 

Xiit 


Plate 31 


Plate 31 


Plate 32 


Plate 32 


Plate 32 


Plate 32 


Plate 33 


Plate 33 


Plate 34 


Plate 34 


Plate 35 


LIST, OFFILEUSTRALIONS 


Writing case with openwork sides. K‘ang Hsi porcelain 
enamelled on the biscuit . - ; ; Fig, 2 


In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 


Square brush pot with pierced sides and characters wén chang 
shan tou. K‘ang Hsi porcelain enamelled on the biscuit 
Fig, 1 

In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 

Lantern with openwork sides. K‘ang Hsi porcelain enamelled 
on the biscuit . . . : Fig. 2 

In the possession of Mr. G. Eumorfopoulos 


Figure of a man seated, with opium pipe. K’‘ang Hsi porcelain 
enamelled on the biscuit . . ‘ . Figs 
In the possession of Mr. Henry Hirsch 


Paper weight in form of a house-boat. K*ang Hsi porcelain 
enamelled on the biscuit . ; : Fig. 2 
In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 


Cup and saucer enamelled on the biscuit . 5 . . 
In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 


Pair of square club-shaped vases, famille noire. K‘ang Hsi 
period . : : : ‘ : ; . , 
In the possession of Mr. J. C. J. Drucker 


Vase with slender ovoid body and narrow neck. K‘ang Hsi 
period . . . . : : , ‘ : 
In the possession of Mr. Anthony de Rothschild 
Dish painted in brilliant famille verte enamels with a domestic 
scene of ladies and children. Kang Hsi period . ; 

In the possession of Mr. Gaspard Farrer 
Ewer painted in brilliant ial verte enamels. K‘ang Hsi 
porcelain . . : ‘ Fig. 1 

In the possession of Mr. R. T. Woodman 
Flower pot of quatrefoil form. K’‘ang Hsi porcelain Fig. 2 
In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 

XiV 


Plate 35 


Plate 36 


Plate 36 


Plate 37 


Plate 37 


Plate 38 


Plate 39 


Plate 40 


Plate 41 


Plate 42 


Plate 42 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


K‘ang Hsi 
Fig, I 


Bottle painted in brilliant LoS verte enamels. 
petiod: | . 4 ‘ : : 


In the possession of Mr. Gaspard Farrer 


Cup shaped like a European glass, K‘ang Hsi porcelain 


In the possession of Mr. W. J. Holt Fig. 2 


Dish painted in famille verte enamels. K‘ang Hsi porcelain 


In the possession of Mr. W. J. Holt Fig. 3 


Puzzle jug of European form. Export porcelain; K‘ang Hsi 
period) +, : ‘ : Fig, 1 


In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Tankard of European form with European metal mount. 
Export porcelain; K‘ang Hsi period . Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Anthony de Rothschild 


Dish with scalloped sides. 


neae era K‘ang Hsi 
period : 


Fig. 3 
In the British Hee (Franks Collection) 


Rouleau vase finely painted in delicate bel verte enamels, 
K*‘ang Hsi period : 


In the possession of Mr. Reginald Gon 


Pair of lanterns. K‘ang Hsi period . ee rigsat andra 


In the possession of Mr. Anthony de Rothschild 
Birthday plate painted in delicate famille verte enamels with 
peach bough and bird. K‘ang Hsimarkin blue Fig. 3 

In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 


Late 
Fig. 1 


Flask-shaped bottle with two archaic-dragon handles. 
K‘ang Hsi period : : : 5 


In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 
Birthday plate, delicately painted in famille verte enamels. 
K‘ang Hsi mark in blue : Fig. 2 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 
XV 


Plate 43 


Plate 43 


Plate 43 


Plate 44 


Plate 44 


Plate 44 


Plate 45 


Plate 46 


Plate 46 


Plate 47 


Plate 47 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Water-dropper in the form of a magnolia cup, the stalk form- 
ing aspout. K*‘ang Hsi period Figo 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Plate painted in delicate famille verte enamels with large lotus 
plant and birds. Kang Hsi mark in blue Fig, 2 
In the possession of Mr. Harvey Hadden 


Bottle-shaped vase of elegant form. K‘ang Hsi period Fig. 1 
In the possession of Mrs. Joshua 


Hexagonal vase of bottle shape. Ch‘ien Lung period Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Harvey Hadden 


Brush washer moulded in the form of a lotus leaf on which are 
two frogs. K‘ang Hsi period Fig, 3 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Bottle-shaped vase with high shoulders. Mark of the Chia 
Ching period in blue, but early 18th century . , Fig. I 
In the possession of Mr. Harvey Hadden 


Bottle of elegant form with long straight neck. Ch‘éng Hua 
mark in blue, but early 18th century Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Harvey Hadden 


Bottle-shaped vase of white eggshell porcelain. Ch‘ien Lung 
porcelain . : : : 4 Fig, 1 
In the possession of Mr. P. David 


Square vase of bronze form. Ch‘ien Lung porcelain Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


Bowl in the form of five bats with outspread wings overlapping. 
Ch‘ien Lung porcelain ‘ : ‘ Fig, 3 
In the possession of Mr. P. David 


Vase of creamy-white porcelain. Ch‘ien Lung period . 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Ewer of double gourd form. K‘ang Hsi porcelain Fig, 1 
In the possession of Mr. W. H. Ferrand 
xvi 


Plate 48 


Plate 48 


Plate 49 


Plate 49 


Plate 49 


Plate 50 


Plate 50 


Plate 51 


Plate 51 


Plate 51 


Plate 52 


Plate 53 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Beaker, one of a pair, with bulbous stem. K‘ang Hsi porcelain 
Fig. 2 
In the possession of Mr. Gaspard Farrer 


“ Cricket cage ’’ of square box shape on four lion-mask feet. 
K‘ang Hsi porcelain Fig, 3 


In the possession of Mr. Henry Hirsch 


Figure of K‘uei Hsing on the Fish-dragon. K’‘ang Hsi porce- 
lain : : : : : Fig, 1 
In the possession Mr. W. J. Holt 


Incense burner in the form of a monster, modelled after a Han 
bronze. K‘ang Hsi porcelain Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Anthony de Rothschild 


Figure of Chung-li Sas the Immortal. 
lain 


K*‘ang Hsi porce- 
Fig, 3 

In the possession nai M r. Pesiios de Rothschild 

Figure of a bird on a rock. K‘ang Hsi porcelain . Fig. 4 
In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 


Covered bowl with prunus design. Yung Chéng mark Fig. 1 


Dish decorated in Imari style. K‘ang Hsi period Fig, 2 
In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 


Eggshell porcelain plate enamelled at Canton. Yung Chéng 
period . Fig, 1 


In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 
Eggshell porcelain plate enamelled at Canton. Yung Chéng 

period Fign2 
In ae possession ant Eres A. T. Warre 


Saucer dish with ruby back and basket of flowers, enamelled at 
Canton. Yung Chéng mark Fig. 3 

In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 
Yung Chéng 
Fig. 1 


Saucer dish painted in famille rose enamels. 
mark 


In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


XVil 


Plate 53 


Plate 53 


Plate 54 


Plate 54 


Plate 54 


Plate 54 


Plate 55 
Plate 55 


Plate 56 


Plate 56 


Plate 56 


Plate 57 


LIST OFPACUUS PRAGIONS 


Bowl delicately painted in mixed enamels with poppies. Seal 
mark of the Ch‘ien Lung period . Fig, 2 
In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 


Saucer dish with incised Imperial dragons. 
period 


Yung Chéng 
: : : : : Fig, I 
In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 
Bowl painted in famille rose enamels with five butterfly medal- 
lions. Yung Chéng mark . ; Fig. 2 

In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 


Vase with rockery and lilies in a graviata pink enamelled 
ground. Ch‘ien Lung period Fig. 1 


In the possession of Mr. M. D. Ezekiel 


Vase with floral scrolls in a black ground, washed with trans- 
parent green. Ch‘ien Lung period Fig, 2 


In the possession of Mrs. Joshua 


Bowl with incised designs and coloured glazes. Yung Chéng 
mark in blue : : : Fig. 3 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Vase of flattened oval elevation. Ch‘ien Lung mark incised 
Fig, 1 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Vase with seven boys in relief. Seal mark in red of the Ch‘ien 
Lung period Fig, 2 


In the possession of Mr. M. D. Ezekiel 


Octagonal brush pot, enamelled in famille rose colours. Ch*‘ien 
Lung mark surrounded by turquoise-green enamel Fig. 3 


In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 


Vase with ‘‘ orange-peel ” glaze. Ch‘ien Lung period . 
In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 
Conical wine cup painted in delicate famille verte enamels. 
Ch‘éng Hua mark, but early 18th century Fig, I 
In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 
XVili 


Plate 57 
Plate 58 
Plate 58 
Plate 59 
Plate 59 
Plate 59 
Plate 60 
Plate 60 


Plate 60 


Plate 61 


Plate 62 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Cup of eggshell porcelain, painted in delicate famille verte 
enamels. Ch‘ien Lung period . : Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


Water pot of glassy eggshell een Mark in mauve 
enamel in seal characters . : Fig. 3 


In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 


Teapot of fine porcelain. Mark of the Ch‘ien Lung period in 
blue enamel : : : ; : : Bact 


In the possession of Mr. Charles Russell 


Shallow bowl painted in delicate famille verte enamels. Seal 
mark of the Ch‘ien Lung period . Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Harvey Hadden 


Vase painted in famille rose enamels. Ch‘ien Lung period 
In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 


Bottle painted in mixed enamels with a ree: peach tree. 
Seal mark of the Ch‘ien Lung period . : , 


In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 
Gourd- “shaped vase painted with red bats in a gold ground. 
Ch‘ien Lung period . ; , Fig. 1 

In the possession nor Mr. M. D. Ezekiel 


Vase with coral red ground and panels with Taoist figures— 
Hsi Wang Mu with pheenix, etc. About 1800 Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. G. Eumorfopoulos 

Dish with engraved dragons and floral border. 
century . ‘ : : : A : 

In the possession of Mrs. Joshua 


Early roth 
Fig, 1 


Bowl painted in delicate famille verte enamels, with Taoist 
figures and emblems. Early roth century Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 
Vase decorated in opaque enamels with four Imperial dragons. 
Tao Kuang period . ; : Fig, 1 
In the British Tisisth (F She Collection) 
xix 


Plate 62 


Plate 62 


Plate 63 


Plate 63 


Plate 64 


Plate 65 


Plate 66 


Plate 66 


Plate 67 


Plate 67 


Plate 68 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


“‘ Medallion Bowl ” painted in underglaze blue inside and in 
famille rose enamels outside. Mark of the Tao Kuang 
period Fig. 2 

In the British enn (F beth Collection) 

Snuff bottle, gourd-shaped with gourd vine in coloured relief 


on a yellow enamel ground. Ch‘ien Lung mark in red 
Fig. 1 


Snuff bottle in form of a fluted flask. Tao Kuang mark Fig. 2 


Snuff bottle in form of a lion and cub. Ch‘ien Lung period 
Fig. 3 
Fig. 4 
Snuff bottle in form of a Liu Hai with string of cash and three- 

legged toad. Ch‘ien Lung period Fig, 5 


Fig. 6 


white porcelain with figures of the 


Snuff bottle in form of a finger citron . 


Snuff bottle with double neck 
Snuff bottle of ‘‘ steatitic ”’ 


Eighteen Arhats in high relief Fig, 7 
Snuff bottle, vase-shaped with ‘ robin’s egg” glaze. Ch‘ien 
Lung mark : : : : Fig. 8 


Snuff bottle of fine white porcelain, with outer casing pierced 
and carved with nine lions gate with balls of brocade. 
Chia Ch‘ing mark Fig. 9 

In the possession of Mr. O. C. Raphael 


Vase of flattened oval elevation enamelled in ‘‘ Mandarin ” 
style. Ch‘ien Lung period Fig, 1 
In the possession of Mr. O. M. Dalton 


Tankard painted in enamels with a little underglaze blue, with 
arms of Yorke and Cocks, and flowers in Canton style. 
Made between 1720 and 1733 Fige2 


Punch bowl painted in enamels with gilding. About 1780 


Fig, 3 
In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 
Pair of ink-screens. K*‘ang Hsi period Fig. 1 


In the possession of the Hon. Mrs. Walter Levy 
XX 


Plate 68 


Plate 69 
Plate 69 


Plate 69 
Plate 69 


Plate 69 
Plate 69 


Plate 69 


Plate 69 
Plate 69 
Plate 70 


Plate 70 


Plate 70 


Plate 71 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Stand for a picture scroll. K‘ang Hsi period Fig, 2 
In the possession of Mr. G. Eumorfopoulos 


Water dropper in the form of a duck and lotus leaf. K’‘ang 
Hsi period : ‘ ; : Fig, 1 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


Water pot with archaic dragons and scrolls engraved beneath a 
yellow glaze. K‘ang Hsi mark in blue . é Fig, 2 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 


3; 


eggshell porcelain with orange-peel 
Fig. 3 


Water pot; “‘ steatitic’ 
glaze. Ch‘ien Lung mark in six characters . 
In the possession of Mr. P. David 


Ch‘ien Lung 
Fig. 4 


Water pot of beehive-shape (T‘ai-po tsun). 
period : : : : : 

In the possession of Mr. P. David 
Chien Lung mark 
Fig. 1 


Brush pot, square with fluted corners. 
with turquoise-green surround 
In the possession of Mr. Reginald Cory 
Brush pot of white “ steatitic ”’ porcelain. Ch‘ien Lung period 
Fig. 2 
In the possession of Capt. A. T. Warre 
Brush rest in the form of squirrels on a chestnut bough. About 
1800 : : : : A 2 Fig. 3 
In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 
Brush rest in the form of a jade buckle. Ch‘ien Lung period 
Fig. 4 
In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 


Miniature incense vase. Ch‘ien Lung mark in gold Fig, I 
In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 


Seal box with perforated sides. Ch‘ien Lung period Fig. 2 
In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 
Wrist-rest in form of a picture scroll. igthcentury Fig. 3 


In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 
xxi 


Plate 71 


Plate 72 


Plate 72 


Plate 72 


Plate 72 


Plate 73 


Plate 73 


Plate 73 


Plate 73 


Plate 74 


Plate 74 


Plate 74 


DISTeOPSLL Li Silk AvieLO NS 


Paper weight in the form of a horse. K‘ang Hsi period Fig. 4 


In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 


Figure of Kuan-yin with flowing robes. K*‘ang Hsi period 


In the possession of Mr. Harvey Hadden 


Incense burner in form of a fish. Ku-angtung ware Fig. 1 


In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 


Teapot with prunus sprays in relief. Yi-hsing ware Fig. 2 


In the possession of Mr. W. W. Winkworth 


Water vessel in form of a peach-shaped cup with peach 


attached 


: : : 4 : Fig. 3 
In the British Museum (Franks Collection) 


XXil 


Plate 74 


Plate 75 


Plate 76 


Plate 76 


Plate 76 


SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Burton, W. Porcelain: a Sketch of its Nature, Art and Manufacture. London, 1906. 
Burton, W. and R. L. Hobson. Marks on Pottery and Porcelain. London, 1912. 


Bushell, S. W. Description of Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, being a translation of the 
T’ao shuo. Oxford, 1910. 


Bushell, S. W. Oriental Ceramic Art.1 Collection of W. T. Walters. New York, 1899. 
Bushell, S. W. Chinese Art. 2 vols. Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook. 1906. 
Ching té chén t‘ao lu, the Ceramic Record of Ching-té Chén by Lan P‘u. 1815. 


Collie, Prof. Norman. A Monograph on the Copper-red Glazes. Transactions of the 
Oriental Ceramic Society. 1921-22. 

D’Entrecolles, Pére. Two Letters written from Ching-té Chén in 1712 and 1722. Pub- 
lished in Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses. Reprinted in Bushell’s Description of Chinese 
Pottery and Porcelain, and Translated in Burton’s Porcelain. 

Franks, A. W. Catalogue of a Collection of Oriental Pottery and Porcelain. London, 1879. 

Grandidier, E. La Céramique Chinoise. Paris, 1894. 

Hippisley, A. E. Catalogue of the Hippisley Collection of Chinese Porcelain. Washington, 
1906. 

Hobson, R. L. Chinese Pottery and Porcelain.? 2 vols. London, 1915. 

Hobson, R. L. Guide to the Pottery and Porcelain of the Far East in the British Museum.? 
1924. 

Hobson, R. L. Wares of the Ming Dynasty. London, 1923. 

Jacquemart et Le Blant. Histoire de la Porcelaine. Paris, 1862. 

Julien, Stanislas. Histoire et Fabrication de la Porcelaine Chinoise. Paris, 1856. Being 
a translation of the greater part of the Ching té chén t‘ao lu with Notes. 

Li Ung Bing. Outlines of Chinese History. 1914. 

Mayers, W. F. Chinese Readers’ Manual. Shanghai, 1874. 

Pelliot, P. Notes sur l’histoire de la Céramique Chinoise, T‘oung Pao. Vol. XXII. 1923. 

T‘ao lu. See Ching té chén t‘ao lu. 

T‘ao shuo. A Discussion of Pottery by Chu Yen. 1774. See Bushell. 

Vogt, M.G. Recherches sur les Porcelaines Chinoises. Bulletin de la Société d’encourage- 
ment pour l'industrie nationale. Paris, 1900. Containing M. Scherzer’s Report on 
Ching-té Chén. 

Williams, S. Wells. The Chinese Commercial Guide. Hongkong, 1863. 

Zimmermann, E. Chinesisches Porzellan. Leipzig, 1923. 


1 Abbreviated throughout to O.C.A. 2 Abbreviated throughout to C.P.P. 
3 Abbreviated throughout to B.M. Guide. 


XXII 


INTRODUCTION 


Unlike those of the Ming, Sung and earlier periods, the later ceramic wares 
of China, those made under the Manchu dynasty which ruled from 1644 
to 1912, have long been familiar to the Western world. They consist 
almost entirely of that Chinese porcelain which has been a household word 
in Europe for two and a half centuries. During the whole of this period 
there has been a brisk trade between China and the West, and our ancestors 
since the days of Charles the First have been able to obtain their goods 
direct from the Chinese manufacturers. Consequently there is no lack 
of specimens for the collector and student of the present day : nor is there 
any lack of material for historical investigation. 

The great manufacturing centre at Ching-té Chén, at which the bulk 
of this porcelain was made, may not be as familiar to us as Stoke-upon- 
Trent ; but we have at least three first-hand accounts of it written by 
Europeans. The most important of these is from the pen of the Jesuit 
father d’Entrecolles, who lived and worked for many years among the 
potters at Ching-té Chén in the second half of the brilliant K‘ang Hsi 
period. The two others were written by the French Consul, M. Scherzer, 
and the British Consul, W. J. Clennell, after visits to Ching-té Chén in 
1881 and 1905 respectively. In spite of the long interval of time and the 
difference in material conditions which separate the periods thus described, 
we cannot fail in reading these three stories to be impressed with the 
continuity of Chinese industrial processes. In fact M. Scherzer’s scientific 
observations are the most valuable commentary we have on the more 
intimate, though less accurate, account given by Pére d’Entrecolles. 

There are besides important native sources of information at our disposal. 
The T‘ao shuo, written in the Ch‘ien Lung period, and the Ching té chén 
t‘ao lu, written in the reign of Chia Ch‘ing, are comprehensive, if rather 
compressed, histories of Chinese ceramics; and T‘ang Ying, the most 
distinguished of all the superintendents of the Imperial porcelain factory, 
has given us more than one first-hand description of the manufacture 
which he so ably controlled. It is true that the Chinese histories, which 
scarcely deign to speak of any but the Imperial wares, are disappointingly 
brief and uncommunicative ; but by a judicious use of all sources, Chinese 
and European, and by making one serve as commentary on the other, 
we are able to construct a fairly complete history of this great and prolific 


1 See Vogt, M. G., Rescherches sur les Porcelaines Chinoises, Bulletin de la Société d’en- 
couragement pour l’industrie nationale, Paris, 1900, containing M. Scherzer’s report on 
Ching-té Chén, 

XXV 


INTRODUCTION 


period of Chinese ceramic history. This interesting task has been rendered 
easy to-day by the admirable work of previous writers, among whom the 
first place must be given to Julien, translator of the greater part of the 
T‘ao lu, and to S. W. Bushell. The latter not only translated the T‘ao 
shuo and other Chinese texts, but collated all the native accounts in his 
invaluable Oriental Ceramic Art, which is further illuminated by his own 
experiences in China. The names of other pioneers such as Jacquemart, 
Franks, Grandidier, etc., will be found in the bibliography. 

But valuable, nay indispensable, as all this written information undoubt- 
edly is, it would be dry bones were it not vitalised by the living specimens 
in our collections. There is doubtless still a great quantity of old porcelain 
hoarded in China, but over there museums are few and private collections 
are difficult, often quite impossible, of access. Indeed a Chinese enthusiast 
has confessed with sorrow that he had to come to Europe to study his 
native wares. Here he could see the wonderful historic collection in 
the Johanneum at Dresden, made at the end of the 17th and in the early 
part of the 18th centuries : besides the more modern collections in the big 
museums in Paris, Berlin, Amsterdam and London. The Londoner is more 
fortunate in this respect. He has no need to travel to see Chinese porcelain 
at its best. The Victoria and Albert and the British Museums will show 
him almost all that he can require ; while both London and the country 
in general are rich in splendid private collections. America is not less 
favoured ; indeed in some respects it is even more so: for the vast collec- 
tions in New York are not only rich in all varieties of the Manchu porce- 
lains, but they are distinctly superior to the European in the matter of 
monochromes. 

Naturally the formation of these large collections has been a drain upon 
the market and we are lucky to have had a Salting and a Franks to ensure 
our National Museums for all time a supply of the best and most repre- 
sentative specimens. For in spite of the enormous output of Ching-té 
Chén during the Ch‘ing dynasty, the higher qualities of Chinese porcelain 
of the best periods are scarce to-day and difficult to come by. 

Time has taken a greedy toll of these fragile wares and there are many 
eager competitors for what remains: for the fascination exercised by 
Chinese porcelain is incredible. Once the collector has come under its 
spell, he is apt to desert all his old ceramic loves. And what after all are 
the European porcelains as compared with the Chinese: Mere things of 
yesterday, the work of pupils who learnt the rudiments of their art from 
the Oriental. Europe had scarcely begun to feel its way to porcelain manu- 


XXVi 


INTRODUCTION 


facture in the early part of the 18th century when the art of the Manchu 
potter was at its zenith, and the Manchu potter had already centuries of 
tradition behind him. The skill of the Chinese potter had long been pro- 
verbial: by this time it was intuitive. Satisfying forms flowed spon- 
taneously from his wheel: his decorative instinct was sure: he had a 
genius for colour, and the combinations in his colour schemes are as daring 
as those of Nature herself and as triumphant. Natural aptitude and long 
training placed him beyond competition, and it would seem that he enjoyed 
some material advantages besides over his fellows in Europe. For what 
European porcelain can boast an underglaze blue comparable with that 
of the K’ang Hsi blue and white: Where are there enamels with the 
brilliancy of the famille verte: Where else the depth and lustre of the 
Chinese monochrome glazes¢ It is no discredit to the young factories 
that they failed to catch up the Chinese. They produced many things of 
great merit such as the Meissen figures and the Sévres biscuit. But they 
have no decorated porcelain to compare with the K‘ang Hsi blue and white 
prunus jars, the fine powder-blue, the sang de beuf monochrome or the 
famille noire. They were competing with a highly gifted race which had a 
start of many centuries, and at the moment when science might have 
brought them on terms of technical equality, industrialism came and 
crushed the soul out of their art. 

The result is that Chinese porcelain holds its position unchallenged. 
It can only be compared with itself. We may canvass the relative merits 
of the wares of the different dynasties, and indeed that is a subject which 
is debated fiercely. But every age has its virtues, and those who prefer the 
simple strength of the Sung masterpieces and the restful tints of their 
monochrome glazes, or the bold three-colour wares of the Ming and the 
freshness of the Ming painted porcelains, will at any rate admit the mastery 
of technique displayed by the early Manchu potters and the brave colouring 
of their wares. It will, however, be more profitable here to confine our 
comparisons to the Manchu dynasty and to consider the relative merits 
of the porcelain in its several periods. 

European prejudice is all in favour of the K’ang Hsi porcelains. They 
were the first to be imported in large quantities and they obtained a prestige 
which was not easily shaken. Of the export porcelains they are undoubtedly 
the best. The Dresden Collection supplies abundant confirmation of this, 
showing as it does that the quality of the blue and white and famille verte 
made for export in the K‘ang Hsi period was relatively high ; and if these 
wares did not always reflect the best native taste, they came near to it. 


XXVI1 


INTRODUCTION 


The predilection for blue and white and famille verte has remained a tradi- 
tion in our own country. 

In the succeeding period, the age of the famille rose, the export trade was 
firmly centred in Canton where there were streets of enamellers at work 
decorating the white porcelain for Europe and for the most part in European 
taste. Special types like the Mandarin porcelain were made to supplement 
the cargoes of the tea merchants, and by the end of the 18th century the 
export ware had become effectively vulgarised. It was not indeed till the 
last half of the 19th century that Europe again got a true vision of the best 
Chinese porcelain, This time it was the loot of palaces, the finest porcelain 
of the best periods and in true Chinese taste. Collectors were not slow to 
realise the merits of this rediscovered treasure: and European buyers 
went to China and bought up the old porcelains on every hand. But 
the old fashions still held their ground: the blue and white and famille 
verte remained in strong demand, and we find to-day that there are types 
of porcelain, long highly valued in China, which are only now coming 
into vogue in Europe. Such are the smaller specimens of single-colour 
glazes, the “‘ steatitic ’’ blue and white, the finer Yung Chéng and Ch’‘ien 
Lung famille rose, the porcelain painted in the “ Ku-yiieh”’ style, and even 
the 19th century palace wares, all of which have attractions of a different 
order from the bold colouring and broad effects of the K‘ang Hsi famille 
verte and blue and white. 

On the refined Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung palace wares delicately 
painted and highly naturalistic floral designs are a conspicuous feature: 
the decoration is nicely balanced and the beautiful white porcelain back- 
ground is allowed full scope. Compared with these, the contemporary 
Canton ruby-back dishes appear overloaded. The painting on the Ku- 
yiieh porcelain is like that of a fine water-colour ; and there is a savour of 
European style in the shading of its rocks and flowers and in the pose and 
grouping of its figure subjects. The little objects—mostly for use or 
ornament on the writing table—with choice monochrome glazes or in 
“ steatitic ’’ blue and white, perfect alike in colour and material, are 
delicacy personified. 

Again the European collector concentrates on the porcelain of the three 
reigns—K‘ang Hsi, Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung. The Chinese, on the 
other hand, does not scorn the finer wares of the 19th century which carried 
on the traditions of Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung. We are indeed apt to 
underestimate the capacity of the 19th century potters. True the general 
run of these later wares, and particularly of the trade goods, show a decided 


XXVILi 


INTRODUCTION 


deterioration; but M. Scherzer, after his visit to Ching-té Chén in 1882, 
makes the significant statement that certain rice-bowls then made for the 
Imperial palace could not be distinguished, save for their reign-marks, 
from those of the K‘ang Hsi period ; and no one knows better than the 
dealer and collector that some of the late copies of the more elaborate 
K’ang Hsi vases are dangerously good. It is usually a certain stiffness 
of drawing and a slight want of grace in form that betrays these imitative 
pieces, rather than any conspicuous lack of quality in the enamels, and these 
are points which it is easy for the enthusiast to overlook. 

As the question of imitations has arisen, we may add that the collector 
needs to be on his guard against those made in Europe as well as in the 
East. Herend and Sévres have shown how closely the European can 
copy Chinese porcelain when he is so minded; and there are Paris 
imitations of famille verte and Canton ruby-back wares which find their way 
into the cabinets of unwary amateurs. But it must be confessed that 
the trained eye should not be deceived by these Western copies, however 
carefully made: for they are betrayed by differences not only in drawing 
and in the tone of the enamels but in the basic material. Exhibited side 
by side with the originals at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in the spring 
of 1924, the French copies appeared childishly easy to distinguish. Only 
when seen apart and in indifferent light are they likely to deceive a collector 
of any experience. But the various types of imitations are discussed in 
different parts of the book and we need not pursue the subject further 
among these generalities. 





7 (ea 
‘ 

' fi . 
4‘ yy 
ays whet 

% 





CHAPTER I 


HISTORICAL AND GENERAL 


History contains few spectacles so remarkable as that of the great Chinese 
Empire conquered by the Manchus. Numerically the Chinese must have 
been ten times stronger than the Manchus even at the moment of their 
largest expansion, and their resources were infinitely greater, But the 
Manchus had what the Chinese lacked, unity of purpose and strong 
capable leaders. 

While the degenerate and eunuch-ridden dynasty of the Mings was 
tottering to its fall and the forces of rebellion were threatening it from 
within, the Manchu national hero, Nurhachu, was steadily welding the 
Tartar tribes in the north into a compact nation of warriors. In his first 
conflict with China in 1618 he smashed three armies each as large as his 
own by striking at each before they could unite, and but for the stubborn 
resistance offered by the frontier fortresses he could have successfully 
invaded China in the reign of T‘ten Ch‘i, Nurhachu died in 1626 and was 
succeeded by his son, who took the Chinese name of T‘’ai Tsung. The 
latter proceeded to consolidate his power by the conquest of the border 
tribes of Mongols, and, as if to fit his people for their destiny, he modelled 
their government on Chinese lines, adopting both the Chinese literature 
and the Chinese religions. Among the gods borrowed from China by the 
Manchus was Kuan Ti, the god of war. T‘ai Tsung also gave to his house 
the dynastic title of Ta Ch‘ing, under which it was fated to replace the 
Mings, But T‘ai Tsung died in 1643 and was succeeded by his son, Shun 
Chih, who was then at the tender age of nine. 

It is doubtful if the Ta Ch‘ing dynasty would ever have ruled in Peking 
but for the quarrels of the Chinese leaders. The Ming dynasty was over- 
thrown in 1644 by a successful rebellion led by Li Tzii-ch*‘éng who was 
admitted by treachery into Peking. There he committed an act of rapacity 
which aroused the mortal enmity of Wu San-kuei, a competent general who 
was holding the key position at Shanhaikuan against the Manchus. Wu, 
thirsting for revenge, invited the Manchu regent to join him against Li 
Tzti-ch‘éng, who marched to meet him at Shanhaikuan. A battle ensued 
in which Li was completely defeated and Wu with his Manchu allies 
followed him up to Peking, The price paid to the Manchu regent was the 
throne of China. He entered Peking on June 5th, 1644, and prepared the 
way for Shun Chih, who ascended the throne in October of the same year. 

It still remained to conquer the rest of China. The shaved head and the 
pigtail, which the Manchus insisted on the Chinese adopting as a sign of 


I B 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


subjection, were not readily accepted, and the patriots rallied to one after 
another of the fugitive Ming princes. Fourteen years of fighting, with 
the usual accompaniment of bloody massacres, were needed before the 
last resistance was crushed in the south-west, and the whole Empire was 
firmly held by Manchu garrisons. 

Shun Chih died in 1661. He was succeeded by his son, who reigned under 
the name of K‘ang Hsi, at the tender age of eight. At the age of fourteen 
K‘ang Hsi assumed the reins of power which had hitherto been held for 
him by his guardians or regents, and he showed himself from the first 
an able, brave, and energetic ruler. However calamitous to the Chinese 
was the period of conquest while the Manchus were imposing their yoke 
upon them, there is no doubt that the first Manchu Emperors were among 
the best rulers which China ever had. Historians rank K‘ang Hsi as equal 
to the two greatest Chinese Emperors, T‘ai Tsung of the T’ang dynasty, 
and his own grandson Ch‘ien Lung; and an intimate picture of him by 
a European priest includes the following encomium!: ‘‘ This prince was 
one of the most extraordinary men who are only met with once in the course 
of several centuries. He placed no limit to his desire for knowledge, 
and of all the princes of Asia there was none with so great a taste for the 
arts and sciences.” 

But the young Emperor’s firm and beneficent rule did not suit some of 
his princes who were anxious to establish feudal power in various parts 
of China. Called upon to disband their forces, three of them, including 
the powerful Wu San-kuei, started the formidable rebellion of the San 
Fan, or Three Princes, in 1673. At one time eleven provinces were in their 
hands and the throne of the Manchus was seriously threatened. But 
chiefly by the skilful direction of the campaign by K‘ang Hsi himself the 
rebellion was eventually crushed in 1681. From this trial the Emperor 
came out stronger than ever, and his long and successful reign did not 
end till December, 1722. 

The events thus briefly surveyed belong to the domain of general history ; 
but they had their reactions on the history of one of China’s most noted 
products to which this book is devoted. The fierce dynastic struggles, 
the wars and rebellions which raged throughout the eighteen provinces 
between 1640 and 1680 were not a favourable background for the arts 
of peace, and we cannot imagine that much attention was given during 
these years to the development of the ceramic industry. Ching-té Chén 
itself, the centre of the manufacture of porcelain, was invaded during 

1 See Li Ung Bing, Outlines of Chinese History, 1914, pp. 407 and 408. 
2 


HISTORICAL AND GENERAL 


the San Fan rebellion and the Imperial factory was destroyed. So that 
if there had been any revival of activity there in the first years of K‘ang 
Hsi, it must have suffered a rude set-back. 

In point of fact we hear little of the Imperial factory in the early part 
of the Manchu dynasty. It was certainly in existence, for Shun Chih 
sent orders in 1654 and 1659, which are chiefly remembered for the 
unavailing trouble which they caused. They included a requisition for 
large ‘‘ dragon-bowls ’’', and plaques? for inlaying a palace balustrade. 
But the workmen toiled for four years without success to make the former ; 
and both orders were eventually withdrawn. The factory at the time 
was under the control of the Viceroy Lang Ting-tso, and it has been 
suggested that he was in some way connected with the famous lang yao 
which we shall have occasion to discuss later. But the idea may be 
dismissed as in the highest degree improbable. 

In 1680 or thereabouts a serious danger to the prestige of Ching-té Chén 
was averted. The Emperor, whose enlightened interest in the arts 
endeared him to the Chinese, ordered the establishment of twenty-seven 
workshops or academies in the Palace precincts at Peking for the fostering 
of various arts, They included manufactures of metalwork, glass, enamel, 
jade, and lacquer ; and we are told that he planned in addition an Imperial 
porcelain factory at Peking. Machinery, material, and workmen were all 
requisitioned from Ching-té Chén, but, though the most complete pre- 
' parations were made, the project fell through. Vested interests and 
political considerations are suggested to explain the failure; and, for 
whatever reason, the Emperor not only abandoned this enterprise, but 
gave the full weight of his patronage to the expansion of the industry 
at Ching-té Chén. 

The Imperial factory was rebuilt and placed under the care of a resident 
official sent from the Imperial household, and an era of exceptional 
brilliancy in the porcelain industry was initiated. “‘ Previously to this,” 
the T‘ao shuo® tells us, ‘‘ the first-class workmen had been levied from 
the different districts of Jao-chou, but now all this was stopped, and as 
each manufactory was started, the artisans were collected and materials 
provided, the expenses being defrayed from the Imperial exchequer and 
the money paid, when due, in accordance with the market prices. Even 


1 The dimensions of the ‘* dragon-bowls ” were to be 23 ft. high, 34 ft. in diameter, 
3 in. thick in the sides and 5 in. at the bottom. 

2 The plaques were required to be 3 ft. by 24 ft. and 3 in. thick. 

3 Bushell, Description of Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, p. 3. 


) 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


the expenses for carriage were not required from the different districts. 
None of the proper duties of the local officers were interfered with ; 
both the officials and the common people enjoyed the benefit, and the 
processes of manufacture were all much improved.” 

Further than this, a preface to the same book, written by Ch‘iu Yiieh- 
hsiu, says ‘“‘ under the reigning dynasty the proper government officials 
are carefully selected, and they give money according to the market price 
and even in excess, so that the people come joyfully, and there are several 
thousands working daily in the potteries. The producers have in this 
way become rich, they spare no labour, and do not grudge expense, so 
that the ware turned out is of novel design and improved daily. Even 
when compared with that of former dynasties, which used to be lauded 
as being as precious as gold or jade, there is some that excels, none that 
fails to come up to the old, and, if it be not now described, after generations 
will be unable to discuss it.” 

Chinese writers confine their remarks almost entirely to the affairs 
of the State factory, but we may fairly assume that the private factories 
at Ching-té Chén shared in the improved conditions. Ching-té Chén 
has been since the beginning of the Ming dynasty the ceramic metropolis 
of China, At least eighty per cent of the fine porcelain, for which China 
has been famous for centuries, comes from that centre and the whole 
of this book, with the exception of a few chapters, must necessarily be 
devoted to it. It is a large unwalled town or mart (chén) on the south 
bank of the Ch‘ang River, in the north-east of the province of Kiangsi. 
This river flows into the Poyang Lake, which is connected with the 
Yangtse, so that the wares of Ching-té Chén can be carried by water to 
that great highway of commerce, or southward by the Kan River (which 
also flows into the Poyang Lake) and the North River to Canton. They 
are also transported by coolies overland into Anhwei and other parts. 

We are fortunate in having an excellent pen picture of the place written 
by Pére d’Entrecolles! in 1712, at the very height of the K‘ang Hsi period. 
He describes the great town encircled by hills, with its double and triple 
lines of junks in the port: the whirling flames from the kilns which give 
it at night the appearance of a burning town: its huge population, 
estimated at a million souls, all directly or indirectly interested in the 


1 Another picture of Ching-té Chén is given by Mr. W. J. Clennell in his Journey in the 
Interior of Kiangst (printed by H.M. Stationery Office) in 1905. It is interesting to observe 
that this description differs very little from that given by the Jesuit father two hundred 
years before, except that the number of kilns was infinitely less in 1905. 


4 


HISTORICAL AND GENERAL 


products of its “ three thousand ’”’ kilns. There is work for all; even 
the halt, the maimed and the blind who can make a living by grinding 
colours. The shops are well stocked, the streets alive with busy people. 
There is wealth enough to tempt all the thieves in China, but the police 
keep everything in order and maintain complete security for the whole 
place. 

The letters of Pére d’Entrecolles, to which we shall refer very frequently, 
give a most interesting description of the processes of porcelain making 
which he learnt partly from his congregation and partly by personal 
observation at Ching-té Chén. They were evidently written with an 
object, namely, to impart his knowledge of the subject to his friends in 
France who were struggling with the mysteries of porcelain manufacture. 
But we have another and a better first-hand authority to consult in the 
“twenty illustrations of the Manufacture of Porcelain ’’ described by 
no less a person than T‘ang Ying, the director of the Imperial factory 
in the reign of Ch‘ien Lung. 

In point of fact the manufacturing processes in use in the Ch‘ing dynasty 
do not differ in principle from those of the Ming which were described 
in the second volume of this series. But it may be convenient for the 
reader if they are briefly set out again following the order of T‘ang Ying’s 
notes. 

The two basic materials of porcelain are china clay (kaolin) and china 
stone. The former was found in the neighbourhood of Jaochow, the 
district city of Ching-té Chén, but the latter had to be brought a distance 
of about seventy miles from Ch‘i-men in Anhwei. It was mined in the 
mountains, crushed and made up in small bricks (tun), whence its name 
pai tun tzii or petuntse (white bricklets). Pére d’Entrecolles tells us that 
it arrived in the small boats which came down stream to Ching-té Chén. 

Both the clay and the stone passed through drastic purification at the 
factory before they were made up into a dough-like mass ready for the 
potter. The glaze was a mixture of china stone and burnt lime and fern 
ashes, the superior qualities of glaze containing a higher proportion of 
the stone. 

In preparing the ware, moulds were used for the shapes which required 
them, but rounded objects were “‘ thrown ’”’ on the wheel. If the vessels 
thus formed were to be decorated in blue, they were now ready to receive 
the colour which was applied to the dried porcelain body. The blue 
material (cobaltiferous ore of manganese) was collected on the hills of 
Shao-hsing and Chin-hua in the province of Chekiang. It had to be 


> 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


roasted, crushed to powder and laboriously refined before it was fit for 
use. It was then mixed with water and painted on with a brush. The 
next process was the application of the glaze, either by immersing the 
vessel in a tub of liquid glaze or by spraying the glaze on through a tube. 
The older process of painting the glaze on with a large brush was now 
little used. The final processes in the preparation of the rounded ware 
were the trimming of the foot which had been left rough for handling, 
and the writing and glazing of the mark. 

The formed, painted, and glazed vessel was now ready for the supreme 
operation of firing; but to protect it from damage in the kiln it had 
to be placed in a fire-clay case or seggar. The seggars were carefully 
stacked in the kiln, which measured about ten feet in width and height 
and something more in length. The furnaces, fed with wood, were then 
lighted and kept burning for about three days. On the fourth day, when 
relatively cool, they were opened and the potter knew if his venture had 
been a success. Pére d’Entrecolles tells us that so many firings were 
unsuccessful in his time that many potters were ruined and the trade 
was something of a gamble. Much might, however, be done to ensure 
success by the proper propitiation of the god of “‘ Fire and Blast.” The 
ware was now withdrawn from the kiln. If it had been painted with blue 
and successfully fired, it came out with a brilliant blue decoration complete 
and ready for the market. The glaze covering is necessary for the 
development of the blue colour: without glaze it would merely fire 
black. 

If, on the other hand, the ware was destined to be painted in enamel 
colours, such as the famille verte and famille rose, it now proceeded to the 
enamellers’ sheds, and received its decoration in vitrifiable enamels applied 
by the brush to the glazed surface. To develop these enamels and to 
make them adhere to the surface another firing was necessary, but only 
at a comparatively low temperature and in a small kiln or stove called a 
“ muffle.” If gold was included in the decoration, yet another firing at 
a still lower temperature was needed. The final operations were grading 
the ware and packing it for transport. The inferior grades of porcelain 
were apparently reserved for local sale. 

It will be understood that this brief and summary sketch takes no account 
of the many variations in composition of paste and glaze to produce 
different qualities of ware, nor of the making of coloured glazes, nor of 
such processes as enamelling on the biscuit, carving, etching, piercing, the 
attachment of handles or relief ornaments with liquid clay, the jointing 


6 


HISTORICAL AND GENERAL 


of sections of moulded and polygonal wares, etc., things which will be 
noted from time to time in the descriptions of type specimens. 

Nor does it pretend to repeat all the details given by T’ang Ying in his 
valuable notes. These are set out in full in the T‘ao Shuo with a com- 
mentary by the author of that book, and they can be conveniently studied 
in Bushell’s translation.1 It will, however, help the reader who is not 
familiar with ceramic processes to understand the more common 
technicalities which are inevitable in a book of this kind. 


1 Op. cit., pp. 7-30. 


CHAPTER II 


THE EARLY CH‘ING WARE AND 
K‘ANG HSI BLUE AND WHITE 


We have little positive information about the porcelain made in the 
first Manchu period. The Imperial factory was at work, but we only 
hear of its failure to make the large-sized dragon fish-bowls and porcelain 
plaques 3 by 2% ft. in area. It is no surprise that the latter proved 
impracticable, as Pére d’Entrecolles tells us in 1712 that about a foot 
square was the largest size in plaques which could be conveniently made 
in his time. It will, however, be safe to assume that the Shun Chih 
wares were of the “‘ transition”’ type described in a late chapter of 
The Wares of the Ming Dynasty. This is borne out by the only dated 
specimen we have met, a figure in Dr. Lindley Scott’s Collection with 
three colour glazes in late Ming style, and by a blue and white bowl in 
the British Museum which is decorated with lions in peony scrolls in 
Ming style in a greyish-blue and marked Ta Ch‘ing nien chih (made in 
the Great Ch‘ing dynasty). Such a mark would be appropriate in the 
first reign of the dynasty and in no other. 

An interesting little group of blue and white porcelain in the British 
Museum doubtless contains some Shun Chih wares as well as early 
K‘ang Hsi. It consists of specimens recovered from sunken Dutch 
ships, wrecked in Table Bay, among which was the Haarlem, lost in 1648. 
Unfortunately there is nothing to show which particular specimens, if 
any, came from the Haarlem itself; but the group is worth the attention 
of collectors. It comprises small plates, saucer dishes, cups and saucers 
(some small and of eggshell thinness), a few jars and diminutive vases 
of blue and white! beside two pieces of white Fukien porcelain.? Most 
of the blue and white is thin, crisp porcelain, lightly moulded with leaf- 
shaped panels and painted with slight floral designs, deer, birds, etc., 
and figure subjects which include mounted warriors riding off with ladies, 
ladies and children and those single figures of ladies standing beside a 
vase of flowers which the Dutch called lange lijsen (long Elizas). Every 
collector knows the latter type and also the “‘ love chase ’”’ saucer dishes, 
on which a man and woman are depicted on horseback hunting a hare. 
The latter are of the same class as the Table Bay porcelain. The ware 
is very like that crisp, sharply moulded porcelain largely made for export 


1 In the Table-case in Bay XXX. 
* In the Pier-case in Bay XXVIII. 


8 


THE EARLY CH‘ING WARE 


in the late Ming days, but there are differences in tone and finish which 
the collector quickly notices, and the ‘‘love chase’’ dishes are nearly 
always marked with the reign name of Ch‘éng Hua. 

This and some of the Table Bay types are usually painted in a pale 
silvery blue, but there are others in which the blue is sapphire of the 
K‘ang Hsi kind or dark indigo. The marks on the Table Bay series 
include the apocryphal date mark of the Ming Emperor Ch‘éng Hua 
and that of K‘ang Hsi, besides a number of complimentary marks such 
as yli (jade) and the like, and a few ‘‘ Hall marks.’”! 

A comparison of the material enables us to bring quite a number of blue 
and white specimens into line with this group and also to identify some 
of the export famille verte porcelain with it. The latter are dishes and 
cups and saucers of the same thin crisply moulded porcelain, with rows 
of petal-shaped compartments brightly enamelled in colours. It is among 
such wares as these we should look for examples of the early famille verte 
porcelains, and not among the black ‘‘ hawthorn” vases and other glories 
of the K‘ang Hsi period which are not likely to have been made before 
the reconstruction of 1680. 

A new era began with this date and the Emperor, who presumably had 
abandoned the idea of transferring the Imperial manufacture to Peking, 
appointed Ts‘ang Ying-hsiian to the control of the Imperial factory. 
Ts‘ang was one of the three great directors—Ts‘ang, Nien, and T‘ang— 
whose able management resulted in one of the most brilliant periods 
in Chinese ceramic annals, the seventy years between 1680 and 1750. 
Ts‘ang’s merits are poetically proclaimed by his successor T‘ang in the 
following words, ‘‘ when Ts‘ang was in charge of the factory the god laid 
his finger on the designs and protected the porcelain in the kiln, so that 
it naturally came out perfect.’ It is much to be regretted that Tang 
did not condescend to some detail in speaking of his predecessor. It 
would have been interesting to know if he had excelled in this or that 
kind of ware and if he had any special inventions to his credit. The 
T‘ao lu is only a little more explicit. It tells us that the material used 
at this time was excellent and that every colour was produced. The 
“ eel yellow,” turquoise, and ‘‘ spotted yellow ” were the most beautiful, 
but the “ pale yellow,’’ brown and purple, the green, the soufflé red 
and soufflé blue were also good. We shall return to these colours 
later on, but it will be convenient to take the chief types of K’ang Hsi 


1 See p. 142. 
9 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


porcelain in order and the first place must be given to the blue and 
white.? 

Since the beginning of the Ming dynasty underglaze blue had been 
regarded as the most suitable medium for pictorial decoration. The 
greater part of the Imperial Ming wares had been blue and white, and col- 
lectors to-day find this kind of porcelain exceedingly attractive in the fresh- 
ness of its designs and the variety of its tones of blue. The Ming blue 
was sometimes pale and silvery, sometimes an intense violet, and again it 
degenerated into indigo and grey. Much depended on the supplies of 
the basic cobalt, which were fitful and varied, and on the trouble taken 
to refine this mineral. But the characteristics of Ming blue and white 
have been set out in detail in the preceding volume and they need only 
be recalled here to contrast them with those of the K’ang Hsi ware. 

The vogue of the blue and white was not seriously shaken before the 
end of the K‘ang Hsi period, when the famille rose enamels came into high 
favour. Vast quantities of it were required by the home market and the 
demand of the European merchants was insatiable. Pére d’Entrecolles 
evidently thought at one time that the traders took little else. Much of this 
imported blue and white has survived in Europe to the present day, and 
it must be confessed that its popularity was thoroughly deserved. It 
was never cheap. When my lord of Bristol? in 1690 bought from “* Medina 
ye Jew ” and “ Collemar ye Dutchman ”’ tea-pots, large jars, china beakers, 
old china bottles, dishes, rice pots, etc., “for dear wife,”” he had to pay 
substantial sums. But they are nothing to the price which the amateur 
will gladly give to-day for the superior qualities of blue and white, and even 
the lower grades of the ware have a merit which is recognised by the market. 
The K‘ang Hsi blue and white has all, even the least pretentious of it, 
a definite cachet, and the best of it has a decorative value to which few 
porcelains can aspire. 

Chinese blue and white has always been the despair of the European 
potters. Try as they would, they have never succeeded in controlling the 
flow of the colour, as it was controlled in the graded washes of the K‘ang 
Hsi ware, nor in reproducing the luminous depths or pure sapphire tint 
of the Chinese blue. The Japanese have been more successful, especially 
in their renderings of the Ming types, but even they have not made 


1 The name “* Old Nanking,’’ which is still current in the sale-rooms for blue and white 
porcelain, is doubtless due to the fact that much of the ware was shipped at the port of 
Nanking on the Yangtse. As far as we know none of it was made at that city. 

2 Diary of John Hervey, First Earl of Bristol. 


IO 


K‘ANG HSI BLUE AND WHITE 


anything comparable to the good K‘ang Hsi blue and white. One 
outstanding difference between the Chinese technique and all others is 
that the Chinese painted the blue on the raw body of the porcelain and 
completed the firing of the body, glaze, and colour in one operation. But 
this does not seem sufficient to account for the whole of their success. 
It has been suggested by a potter that the use of tin in the glaze was the 
secret of the brilliance of the Chinese blue. Only the potter expert can 
pronounce on the feasibility of such an explanation, and we await with 
interest some authoritative pronouncement on this interesting, but purely 
technical, question. Meanwhile it is safe to say that as compared with 
other Chinese blue and white the K‘ang Hsi owes its distinctive virtues 
to careful workmanship. 

Take a good specimen and examine it. The body material is clean 
white and of fine, close grain. This may be seen and felt at the edge of 
the foot-rim which is free from glaze, and the unctuous smoothness of 
the paste there observable is the result of careful preparation of the china 
clay and stone. The form of the vessel, whatever it is, is well-proportioned 
and shapely, particularly if it has been ** thrown ”’ on the potter’s wheel, and 
the potting is invariably true. The glaze is, as it should be, unobtrusive 
but clear, limpid and lustrous and without any colour except that faintest 
tinge of green which helps so much to harmonise the blue decoration with 
the white ground. Together the body and glaze combine to make a solid 
white like well-set curds, and in this ground the blue is free to display 
its qualities. The quality of the blue is of supreme importance to the 
collector. It may be light or dark according to taste, silvery or deep sap- 
phire, but it must be pure and free from any tinge of red or grey. The 
K’ang Hsi style of painting with its faint outlines? filled with graded washes 
is an exacting test of the quality of the blue ; the marbled masses of colour 
at once become heavy and dull if the blue is not pure, and this purity was 
only obtained by refining the mineral cobalt with scrupulous care. The 
design is well chosen and painted with care, and finally the base is 
neatly trimmed with clean, straight sides on the foot-rim which is very often 
shaped at the edge to fit a wooden stand. A wash of glaze protects the 
base and the mark, if there is one, and covers part of the foot-rim inside, 
leaving the edge bare, and the body exposed at this point is often slightly 
browned in the firing. 


1 In general contrast with the typical Ming style in which the designs are heavily outlined 
and the filling washes are flat. The Ming blue provides another contrast, as it usually 
tends to violet or grey. 


II 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


The actual designs on the K‘ang Hsi blue and white are not above criti- 
cism. They are often crowded and rather.fussy and they rarely have the 
freshness and spontaneity of the Ming from which they are mainly derived. 
It was inevitable that the execution should be somewhat mechanical in 
view of the system employed. Division of labour was not unknown in 
the Ming factories, but it was reduced toa fine art in the K‘ang Hsi period. 
There were specialists for every kind of decoration, even for the plain 
rings which border the round wares. There were painters who did the 
outlines only, some drawing flowers, others birds, others human and 
animal figures, and others landscape ; and another set of workmen filled 
in the design with washes of blue. Inscriptions were, of course, the work 
of a specialist, and there was a separate department in the Imperial factory 
for the marks and seals. 

Pére d’Entrecolles’ comments! on the porcelain painters are not very 
complimentary. He classes them with the ordinary workmen and com- 
pares their efficiency to that of a European apprentice of four months’ 
standing. But his remarks are obviously coloured by foreign prejudice 
which cannot understand the conventions of Chinese drawing ; and even 
he has to admit that “‘ they paint admirable flowers, animals, and land- 
scapes on the porcelain.”’” We realise to-day that, whatever may have been 
the status of these decorators, and however mechanical their methods, 
their execution was unexceptionable. One rarely sees bad drawing on 
a K‘ang Hsi specimen. 

But this mechanical skill could never have won for the K‘ang Hsi blue 
and white its world-wide recognition, had it not been for the beauty of 
the blue. One feels that the manufacturers realising this allowed the design 
to become more and more the mere vehicle for the blue. In the most 
sumptuous specimens the white is entirely subordinate, and in place of 
a blue design on an expanse of white ground we have a pattern in white 
reserved in a ground of marbled blue. The effect is brilliant but almost 
entirely dependent on the quality of the blue, and to this the collector will 
pay close attention. The nuances of the colour are endless and the differ- 
ence between the first, second, and third grades of blue may be scarcely 
perceptible to the untrained eye, but they soon become apparent when one 
is buying in competition with experts. There have been, and probably 
still are, specialists in the trade who have made blue and white a life 
study and found it a highly remunerative one. But even if we do not 
aspire to supreme expertise, anyone with ordinary taste and eye can 

1 In his letter of 1712. See'Bushell, T‘ao shuo, p. 192. 


I2 


K‘ANG HSI BLUE AND WHITE 


quickly master the broader distinctions between first-rate and good, 
moderate and poor qualities ; and if we do not trust our memories, a small 
piece of approved blue and white carried in the pocket will serve as a handy 
touchstone in the auction room and shop. 

The would-be student should have no difficulty in finding blue and 
white worthy of his attention. There are many fine collections both 
public and private, and the Londoner, at any rate, is well provided for. 
The Salting and other collections at the Victoria and Albert Museum, 
and the excellent study series in the Franks Collection in the British 
Museum well-nigh exhaust the subject between them. Liverpool and dis- 
trict will find in the Lady Lever Art Gallery at Port Sunlight a collection 
of exceptional interest not only for its variety but for a number of out- 
standing specimens. It includes a whole series of ‘‘ prunus jars ’’ of first- 
rate quality, some of the best white on blue imaginable, and a few pieces 
of exceptional size rivalling the famous “ grenadier ’’ vases at Dresden’. 

The Port Sunlight Collection is rich in sets of five (i.e. three covered jars 
and two beakers, made en suite, for the decoration of chimney-pieces). 
Such things would have no place in Chinese houses and were obviously 
made for export; but they make it abundantly clear by their excellent 
quality that in the blue and white at any rate the foreign merchants were 
now able to secure goods of the best workmanship. 

Ysbranti Ides, the Russian envoy who visited Peking in 1692, in his 
brief note? on Chinese porcelain denies that the better class of goods were 
permitted to leave the country. His statement is doubtless correct to the 
extent that porcelain in pure native taste, and therefore regarded in China 
as the best, would not often find its way into the hands of unappreciative 
foreigners; but there is abundant evidence in the Dresden Collection 
and elsewhere to show that the wares made for the European trade were 
often of very high quality. 


1 One of them measures 4o in. in height. 

2 Augustus the Strong who built up the historic Dresden Collection (largely between the 
years 1694 and 1705) is said to have purchased a set of these monster vases at the price of 
a regiment of soldiers. But vases of these dimensions must have been exceptional in the 
K‘ang Hsi period, for Pére d’Entrecolles in his second letter (written in 1722) describes 
covered jars 4 ft. high and made in three sections as having been actually made in that 
year, though previously regarded as impracticable. 

3 See Marryat, Pottery and Porcelain, p. 243: ‘‘ The finest, richest and most valuable 
china is not exported, or at least very rarely, particularly a yellow ware, which is destined 
for the Imperial use, and is prohibited to all other persons.” 


13 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


Something will be said elsewhere about the forms and decorations of 
Chinese porcelain in general, so that we need not attempt a tabulation of 
those used in the blue and white. But there are a few specialities of this 
K‘ang Hsi ware with which the reader will wish to be acquainted. 

First and foremost are the beautiful covered jars in which the Chinese 
sent gifts of fragrant tea or sweetmeats to their friends at the New Year. 
It was an understood thing that the jar should be returned. Of the various 
names, ‘‘ ginger jars,’” “‘ hawthorn jars,”’ and “‘ prunus jars,” which we are 
in the habit of giving to these elegant objects, the last is the most appro- 
priate. Their shape is a squat oval with short straight neck and cap-cover, 
usually rounded but sometimes flattened on the top, and they are decorated 
all over with a design of prunus sprays, alternately ascending and descend- 
ing, in white reserved in a ground of marbled blue which is netted over 
with lines resembling ice-cracks. The design, in itself of surpassing beauty, 
is of all others the best calculated to bring out the qualities of the K‘ang 
Hsi blue. The graceful white sprays of blossoming prunus, a free, light, 
and nicely balanced decoration, stand out in delicious contrast on the 
intense vibrating sapphire of the background. Like all true Chinese designs 
it appeals to the mind as well as to the eye. The winter is passing with 
the breaking ice and the flowering prunus is the earliest herald of spring. 
New Year’s day in the Chinese calendar is three to seven weeks later than 
in ours, and spring is near enough to make this pleasing symbolism 
appropriate. 

Fine specimens of the prunus jar can be seen at the Victoria and Albert 
Museum and at Port Sunlight. In these the oval shape is perfectly 
proportioned with nicely flowing curves: the prunus design is well 
spaced and devoid of any stiffness: the blue is deep but luminous and of 
intense sapphire tone: and what is visible of the white is firm, solid and 
pure. Some have the original cap-covers of rounded form, but by no 
means all, for time has taken its toll of these fragile objects and they have 
been replaced by substitutes in wood or porcelain. Connoisseurs will 
notice that the mouth-rim is straight and low and unglazed where the cover 
rested, and that the design on the shoulder is finished off with a narrow 
band of toothed pattern. 

But fine specimens such as that shown on PJate 2 are rare and, needless 
to add, proportionately costly ; and even second-rate examples of the 
K‘ang Hsi period are not easy to come by. But the prunus design 
was too attractive to escape vulgarisation and we find it indifferently 
expressed on all manner of objects, old and new. In the late and obviously 


14 


K‘ANG HSI BLUE AND WHITE 


degenerate specimens the drawing is hard and stiff, and the blue garish 
or washy or impure ; and if the “ ginger jar’ shape is affected, the pro- 
portions are bad, the shoulders heavy and the sides flattened. In some 
cases, too, the prunus design has lost its original character and has even 
been degraded into a mere pattern of blossoms more or less symmetrically 
disposed on the blue ground. This treatment of the motive is not suitable 
for large surfaces, though effective in border patterns and on small areas, 
as on the exquisite little box on Plate 28. 

Though not so much canvassed as the prunus jars there are other types 
of white on blue porcelain which have great distinction. These are indeed 
more consistently good than the prunus jars because there has not been 
so much temptation to vulgarise them. Such are the cylindrical jars, vases, 
beakers, and double and triple gourds decorated with close patterns of 
dragons in peony scrolls, with here and there a medallion filled in with 
a formal flower: or again the same forms with rather similar designs but 
chiefly composed of rose scrolls, with small oval medallions on the upper 
part sometimes left blank like ticket labels. This last type, known as 
“rose and ticket ’’ porcelain, is illustrated on Plate 28. Though of high 
quality and usually painted with the best blue, these wares are apparently 
of the export class and occur frequently in the sets which were only made 
for European use. Another type is the slender cylindrical jar with con- 
tracted neck decorated in horizontal belts with archaic dragon and fungus 
designs alternating with dragons and floral scrolls.1 This, too, is of the 
white on blue class and almost always of high quality. Then there are the 
narrow-necked bottles or sprinklers and the ewers with long slender spouts 
and handles decorated with large leaf-shaped panels, or mirror-shaped 
designs linked together, filled in with floral arabesques in white on blue : 
the surrounding spaces are often diapered with a fine mosaic work of small 
blossoms or netted patterns.2, And there are jars with deep borders of 
ju-i-shaped pendants or lambrequins with the same floral arabesques, 
white on blue. Designs from ancient bronzes, though more common 
on the Ch’ien Lung wares, were used occasionally by the K‘ang Hsi 
decorators as on the triple-gourd vase on Plate 28. 

When we turn to the designs in blue and white we enter a wider field. 
All the older Ming patterns are apt to recur, landscapes, figure subjects 
from history and romance, flowers, birds and insects; but we can only 
specify a few which are of the more peculiarly K‘ang Hsi types. Typical 
landscape designs are illustrated in Plate 29; and the very distinguished 

1 B.M. Guide, Fig. 107. 2 Ibid., Figs. 112 and 114. 


15 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


vase shown on Plate 27 has a river scene, with fishermen in punts, rendered 
with an unusual amount of individuality. The basket of flowers, and the 
pheasant on rockery surrounded by flowering peonies, prunus, bamboos, 
etc., occur on all qualities of K‘ang Hsi porcelain. A close pattern of 
peony or lotus scrolls punctuated with large blossoms is associated par- 
ticularly with bottle-shaped vases, with wide globular body and tall, rather 
thick neck. It is usually painted in blue of good quality; and so is the 
tiger lily design,1 commonly seen on tall cylindrical covered cups and jars 
and sometimes on dishes with moulded gadroon-shaped panels. A 
particularly fine example of this kind of dish was bequeathed to the British 
Museum by the late Mr. W. F. Smith. 

The aster pattern, a radiating design of stiff flowers on their stalks, is 
familiar on dishes, plates, and covered bowls. It is generally painted in 
a dark, rather heavy blue. Another distinctive treatment of a floral motive 
is seen on the magnolia vases, usually covered jars or beakers with a mag- 
nolia in blossom elegantly designed and often lightly moulded in relief, 
the white blossoms set off by a surround of blue: this is seen on a beaker 
on Plate 31, and a variety of the same decoration with prunus instead of 
magnolia occurs on a lovely vase? in the Leonard Gow Collection. 

The moulding of parts of the ware in slight relief is a feature of much of 
the export porcelain of this period. Bowls, dishes, cups and saucers and sets 
of covered jars and beakers are often embellished in this way with bands 
of small leaf-shaped panels which the decorator filled with landscapes, 
growing flowers or figures singly or in groups: see Plate 31, Fig. 1. 
The figures are often tall, graceful ladies (mei jén) standing beside a vase 
of flowers in a garden, singly or in pairs, the “‘ long Elizas ’”’ of the Dutch 
importers. One might have imagined that the traffic in such a dainty and 
beautiful material as porcelain would stimulate the poetic instincts, but 
to judge from a few of their consecrated phrases such as “ long Elizas,” 
“‘ ginger jars,” fish-roe, and frog-spawn patterns, the traders in Oriental 
goods have been singularly free from romance. These elegantly draped 
female figures, so irreverently styled lange lijsen, are perhaps the most 
successful of all attempts to use the human figure as a motive for ceramic 
decoration. 

Pére d’Entrecolles has some interesting remarks on the porcelain made 
for the European merchants. The foreigner had a weakness for shapes 
which were eccentric and bizarre, and consequently the manufacturer 
who hoped to satisfy his demands quickly was bound to keep a good stock 

1 BM. Guide, Fig. 113. ’2 Burlington Magazine, October, 1924. 
16 


K‘ANG HSI BLUE AND WHITE 


of moulds of the popular shapes. Anyone who has studied the export 
K*‘ang Hsi porcelain will confirm the truth of this statement, which applies 
to enamelled porcelain no less than to blue and white. Witness the many- 
sided vases of complex form, built up in sections and moulded with strange 
excrescences, so often seen in country houses where they have remained 
since the days of Queen Anne. They are more quaint than beautiful, and 
the Chinese were obliged to charge high prices for them because such 
things had no market in China and the merchants rejected them for the 
slightest flaw, leaving them on their hands, Similarly the jars and vases 
of abnormal size were mostly made for European consumption. The four- 
foot jars, for instance, made in 1722, ‘‘ were ordered by the Canton merchants 
who deal with Europeans.”” There were, of course, large objects required 
occasionally by the Emperor, such as the dragon-fish bowls and the great 
lamp ordered by the Crown Prince ; and we are told that the Mandarins 
actually consulted Pére d’Entrecolles with a view to getting quaint and novel 
designs to tickle the fancy of their Imperial patrons, but his converts 
begged him to refrain because of the difficulty of making eccentric forms 
and the suffering which resulted from the disappointment of the Mandarins. 
We may, perhaps, trace to some such effort as this the curious bottles 
with wing handles,! obviously copied from Venetian glass, which are 
occasionally seen in collections of K‘ang Hsi blue and white. The more 
ordinary shapes of European table-wares, plates, cups and saucers, tankards, 
jugs, salt cellars, etc., were made as a matter of course. The supply of 
these wares seems still to be inexhaustible, but they are often of in- 
different quality with summary and sometimes meaningless decorations 
painted in a dull, rather heavy blue. It will be noticed as a defect of 
the Chinese porcelain of this period that the sharp rims of plates and 
other objects were apt to chip and scale. Pére d’Entrecolles tells us 
that the Chinese, who were conscious of this weakness, tried to remedy 
it by a special glaze locally applied which got over the trouble without 
affecting the colour of the ware. At a slightly later date it was the 
practice to protect the vulnerable edges with a band of lustrous brown 
glaze. 

The marks on the blue and white of this period are varied and peculiar. 
It is recorded that in 1677 the district prefect forbade the potters at Ching- 
té Chén to put the reign-name of the Emperor or any sacred writing on 
the porcelain, lest it should be broken and desecrated. Though this 
ordinance can only have remained in force for a limited period, it may 

1 BLM. Guide, Fig. 109. 
17 c 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


have started the practice, which became so general, of using symbols and 
other substitutes for the K‘ang Hsi date marks. Even the reign-names of 
Ming Emperors, such as Hsiian Té and Ch‘éng Hua, are comparatively 
common on K‘ang Hsi porcelain, whereas the K‘ang Hsi mark itself is 
rarely seen. Its place is taken by marks of commendation, hall-marks, 
symbols and the like ; and sometimes the double ring which encloses the 
mark is left blank. The result is that many of these substitute marks 
have come to be regarded with good reason as evidence of K‘ang Hsi 
make, and some of them, such as the character yii (jade), as a guarantee of 
good quality. 

Another mark which occurs on both blue and white and enamelled wares 
of good quality is evidently of European derivation. It resembles the 
capital letter G and occurs on certain straight-necked bottles which are 
painted with floral scrolls in a peculiar style, possibly traceable to Dutch 
influence. It is doubtless the special mark put on the ware made for some 
foreign firm, 

It remains to mention a few special types of blue and white. We are 
indebted to Pére d’Entrecolles for a description of two of them. The 
first is the so-called “ soft-paste,’’ to use the American name which like 
so many of the stereotyped terms in ceramic phraseology will not bear 
examination. “ Soft-paste ’’ to the European ear suggests the artificial 
porcelains of Sévres and Chelsea, of which the body or paste was indeed 
relatively soft, whereas that of the Chinese ware is intensely hard. The 
glaze, on the other hand, is softer than the ordinary felspathic glaze ; it 
contains a softening element of lead and is often crackled. Of the body, 
Pére d’Entrecolles tells us that it was made of hua shih, an unctuous 
soapy material which was generally believed to be soapstone or steatite,? 
in the proportion of eight parts to two of petuntse. In other words, hua 
shih took the place of kaolin, and the ware would be more correctly 
described as hua shih porcelain. 

“The porcelain made with hua shih,’ to quote our authority, “ is rare 
and far more expensive than the other porcelain. It has an extremely 
fine grain; and for purposes of painting, when compared with ordinary 


1 See p. 143. A blue-and-white bottle with rather European-looking floral scrolls, and 
this mark is figured in the B.M. Guide, Fig. 111. 

* Vogt, however, who analysed samples of this material from San-pao-p‘éng, declares that 
it contains no magnesium and is a kind of pegmatite rather than soapstone. We have, 


however, preserved the term “ steatitic”’ to distinguish the special ware made with the 
hua shih. 


18 


K‘ANG HSI BLUE AND WHITE 


porcelain, it is almost as vellum to paper. Moreover, this ware is sur- 
prisingly light to anyone accustomed to handle other kinds; it is far 
more fragile than the ordinary, and there is difficulty in finding the exact 
temperature for its firing. Some of the potters do not use hua shih for 
the body of the ware, but content themselves with making a diluted slip 
into which they dip their porcelain when dry, so as to give it a coating 
of hua shih before it is painted and glazed, By this means it acquires a 
certain degree of beauty.” 

This is an accurate description of the two kinds of “ steatitic ’’ porcelain. 
That with a full hua shih body has a dry, earthy appearance, though 
fine and unctuous to the touch. The Chinese call it sha t‘ai (sand bodied) 
or chiang t‘ai (paste bodied), and it is quite opaque. Being an expensive 
ware it was generally used for those dainty little objects, in which the 
Chinese delight and excel, such as the furniture of the writing-table, 
water-pots, and water-droppers, diminutive vases and incense burners, 
and boxes for holding seal vermilion. It was, moreover, decorated by 
the most skilful painters and with the finest blue and usually in the true 
calligraphic style in which the effect is obtained by fine brush strokes 
rather than by graded washes. This carefully pencilled decoration was 
one of the styles affected by the early Ming blue and white artists, but it 
was rarely used on the later Ming or the K‘ang Hsi blue and white of the 
ordinary kind. 

Pére d’Entrecolles was under the impression that this use of hua shih 
was a novelty in 1722, but he so often mistakes revivals for novelties 
that we do not feel justified in accepting his statement, especially as a 
blue-painted ware of a type closely resembling the steatitic is known to 
have been a speciality of certain 16th-century potters.1 But we do know 
that it was freely used in the succeeding reigns of Yung Chéng and 
Ch‘ien Lung. In fact one may almost say that the only Ch‘ien Lung 
blue and white worth considering is of the “ steatitic’” kind. Tang 
Ying himself (writing in 1743) says, “‘ there is one kind of blue called 
onion sprouts which makes very clearly defined strokes and does not 
run in the fire and this must be used for the most delicate pieces,” 
doubtless an allusion to this dainty ware. 

A few examples of this ‘‘ steatitic’’ porcelain are shown on Plates 32 
and 72. Some of them are from a wonderful cabinet of this ware belong- 
ing to Mr. P. David. In looking through this collection one realises the 
lightness, variety, and charm of this exquisite ware. Some of the pieces 

1 See Wares of the Ming Dynasty, p. 185. 


19 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


are practically opaque and the biscuit seen at the foot-rim is quite dusky. 
Others, like Fig. 3 of Plate 72, are turned to eggshell thinness and have 
an uneven orange-peel texture of glaze in addition to the faint crackle. 
Larger pieces, such as a vase in the British Museum! and a fine vase in 
the David Collection with a figure of Ma Ku and her lion-like monster, 
are of the second kind and are treated to the surface wash only. They 
have a dead white surface and traces of crackle in the glaze. 

Specimens of both kinds of “ steatitic ’’ porcelain are to be seen in our 
public and private collections. They will be found among the snuff- 
bottles if nowhere else. But specimens are still to seek of the second 
kind of ware of which Pére d’Entrecolles gives a tantalising description 
in his letter of 1712.2. Its manufacture was already a lost art at the time 
of writing. ‘‘ The Chinese,’’ he tells us, ‘‘ once were able to paint on 
the sides of a piece of porcelain fishes and other creatures which were 
only visible when the vessel was filled with liquid. They call this ware 
chia ching, i.e. blue put in press, because of the way in which the blue 
is applied. The following is all they can recall of the secret: perhaps 
European imagination will supply what the Chinese have forgotten. 
The porcelain to be painted in this way must be very thin: when it is 
dry, a rather strong blue is applied, not to the exterior as is usual but to 
the sides of the interior: fishes are the usual motive, because their appari- 
tion when the cup is filled with water is specially appropriate. When 
the colour is dry, it is covered with a thin layer of diluted slip made of 
the same material as the porcelain. This coating imprisons the blue 
between two layers of clay; and when the coating is dry, glaze is sprayed 
over the interior of the piece. Presently it is put on the lathe, and as it 
has been given some substance on the interior, it is pared down outside 
as fine as is possible without cutting into the colour. Then the exterior 
is dipped in glaze, and when all is dry it is baked in the ordinary kiln. 
It is an extremely delicate operation, requiring a skill which apparently 
the Chinese no longer possess. Still they try occasionally to recover 
the secret of this mysterious decoration, but without success. One of 
them assured me that he had recently made a new attempt and had almost 
succeeded,” 

The construction of such a piece of porcelain does not seem inherently 
impossible. That it would require extremely skilful handling is obvious ; 
but how the liquid could affect an impenetrable porcelain glaze so as to 
bring the dormant colour to life remains a mystery. One recalls the 

1 BM. Guide, Fig. 137. ° 2 Bushell, T‘ao shuo, p. 197. 


20 


K‘ANG HSI BLUE AND WHITE 


story of the Yi-hsing tea-pots in Hsiang’s Album! which changed colour 
when filled with tea; and one is tempted to dismiss both stories as 
incredible. But what are we then to think of the Russian envoy, Ysbranti 
Ides,? who visited Peking in 1692 and wrote, among other things: “‘ They 
have a kind of white china, excessively thin, with blue fishes painted on 
the metal between the coats of varnish, so that they are invisible except 
when the cup is full of liquor ’’¢ He does not actually claim to have 
seen a specimen, and perhaps he was only repeating a story which was 
current at the time. Possibly the tradition of this hidden decoration was 
in the minds of the potters when they made a ware with faint blue designs, 
which is represented by two or three specimens in the British Museum. 
It is a dead white and glassy porcelain, evidently a special composition, 
and the design, usually a dragon, is etched with a needle-point in the 
paste. A little cobalt was evidently dusted into the incisions and the 
porcelain glazed and fired in the usual manner. The result is a faint 
blue design as it were tattooed in the flesh of the vase. Incidentally these 
pieces bear the Ch‘éng Hua mark, but they are probably not older than 
the Yung Chéng period ; and it is interesting to observe that the earliest 
form of blue decoration on Staffordshire salt-glazed stoneware,’ made 
not long after this period, was effected in a very similar manner. 

There is one other colour used for painted decoration which is applied 
before glazing and, like the blue, developed in the high temperature of 
the porcelain kiln. This is the underglaze red derived from copper. 
More will be said of this colour in connection with the beautiful red 
glazes which were one of the glories of the K‘ang Hsi period. Meanwhile 
we note that the copper red was used for pictorial designs, both alone and 
in company with underglaze blue. It was, however, a colour which 
seems to have given much trouble to the potters of all periods from 
the 15th century onwards. At one period, as in the reigns of Hsitian Té 
and Ch‘éng Hua, it was a striking success: at another it was abandoned 
in despair. It figures, though not conspicuously, on K‘ang Hsi wares, 
but most of the Ch‘ing specimens on which it has been developed with 
outstanding success will be found to belong rather to the succeeding 
reigns, 

There are two distinct kinds of underglaze red painting, apparently 
the result of different methods of application. In one the red appears 
in sharp, clearly defined brush strokes like the pencilled blue, and in the 


1 Wares of the Ming Dynasty, p. 196. 2 See p. 13, footnote. 
3 This is the so-called “ scratched blue ” salt glaze. See also p. 84. 


al 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


other it is piled up in thick washes, which often have a palpable relief 
and even develop crackle. In the latter case it seems to be more of a 
glaze and, indeed, it assumes the character now of sang de beuf, now 
of peach bloom. 

The underglaze reds and blues are both effectively used in combination 
with celadon and lavender glazes, with or without a backing of white 
slip.1. The celadon colour seems to have been particularly sympathetic 
to the copper red and some of the latter’s most successful appearances 
are made under a pale celadon green glaze. But here again we are 
trenching on the Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung periods; and a description 
of this kind of porcelain must be reserved for another chapter. We can, 
however, refer the reader to a K‘ang Hsi specimen on Plate 31, a beaker with 
beautiful design of rock and pheasant and flowering peony and magnolia, 
partly raised in relief and coloured with underglaze red and blue and 
passages of celadon green. The magnolia flowers at the top are relieved 
by surrounding washes of blue in a manner already described on page 16. 


1 i.e. liquid clay. 


a2 


CHAPTER III 


FAMILLE VERTE PORCELAIN 
ENAMELLED ON THE BISCUIT 


Next to the blue and white the most characteristic K’ang Hsi porcelain 
is what is known as famille verte. The green family gets its name from 
the predominance of greens of various shades in its colouring ; but though 
the green dominates, it does not monopolise the colour scheme. It is, 
in fact, very well supported by yellow, violet-blue, aubergine purple, 
coral red and composite black. 

Metallic oxides in small doses are the colouring agents in this palette— 
cobalt for the blue, copper for the green, manganese for the aubergine, 
iron for the red, and iron or antimony for the yellow ; and in nearly every 
case they are mixed with a lead flux forming an easily fusible coloured 
glass. They are melted on to the porcelain surface at a low temperature 
in the muffle kiln (see p. 6), and appear, when cool, as brightly coloured 
but transparent enamels. The red is an exception in that it needs little 
or no fluxing material, but is applied as a pigment mixed with water and 
a little ox-glue to make it adhere. What glassy element it requires is 
drawn from the glaze itself. Another pigment used without flux is the dry 
brown or black (derived from manganese) which is employed for drawing 
outlines or making a backing for the composite black enamel. The latter 
is merely black pigment coated over with a transparent enamel, which 
is usually green but sometimes aubergine. On later wares a colourless 
wash of the fluxing material was sometimes used to coat the black pigment, 
or the pigment and the flux were actually mixed together, but the resultant 
colour was distinctly inferior to the green-black of the K‘ang Hsi period. 

The famille verte enamels are very similar to those used by the Ming 
potters in their “ five colour ’’ wares. They are composed on the same 
principles, but a few differences are observable in the results. The K*ang 
Hsi yellow is generally clearer and of a lighter tone than the Ming, there 
are new shades of green, among which a pale apple-green is noticeable, 
the red is lighter and thinner and of a more coral tint, and the violet-blue 
(only tentatively used on the late Ming wares) replaces the peculiar Ming 
turquoise-green. This violet-blue enamel, a singularly beautiful colour, 
is one of the features of the famille verte. The connoisseur looks to it 
specially in appraising a specimen, and if the blue is bright and clear 
the piece will be highly valued. A peculiarity of this enamel has frequently 
been noted, namely, that it seems to infect the white porcelain surrounding 


23 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


it with a curious oily stain which is lustrous like the track of oil on water. 
This “ halo,’”’ as it is called, was doubtless due to some emanation from 
the blue ; and as it does not always appear, we may assume that it was a 
defect for which a remedy was eventually found. But collectors are in 
no way distressed by its presence, as they have come to regard it as a 
sign of genuineness. 

Those masterpieces of ceramic decoration, the K‘ang Hsi polychromes, 
were made with this limited but choice palette of colours, sometimes 
embellished with touches of gilding. But there is no limit to the variety 
of effects obtained from them by the Chinese artists with the wide range 
of designs at their disposal. There are, however, two large groups which 
are distinguished by differences in technique and in general appearance. 
One of these may be called the porcelain with on-biscuit enamels and 
the other the porcelain with on-glaze enamels. 

To deal first with the on-biscuit group, the term “ biscuit,’’ we must 
explain, is applied to the porcelain body baked in the kiln but not yet 
glazed. Though clear and white it has a mat surface which reflects little 
light. To this the enamels were applied in the following way. First 
the design was traced in outline in a dull brown-black pigment, every 
detail of the drawing being complete. The colours were then applied 
in broad washes of transparent enamel which allowed the design to appear 
distinctly while supplying it with the necessary tints. The whole famille 
verte palette rarely appears in the on-biscuit decoration which harks back 
to the Ming san ts‘ai or three-colour scheme. Green, yellow, and 
aubergine form the usual combination and the white is supplied by an 
almost colourless wash which has a faint greenish tinge and a distinct 
lustre.1 The composite black is also used, and more rarely the coral red 
and the violet-blue. But neither of these last two colours seems to have 
taken kindly to the biscuit ground and it was sometimes necessary to 
provide a special patch of porcelain glaze for their benefit, as on the pair 
of figures on Plate 11. 

As a rule in this on-biscuit decoration the entire surface of the porcelain 
was covered; for the biscuit, if left exposed, was apt to become dirty 
and discoloured. The exception to this rule are the bases and other 
unessential areas of vessels and the fleshy parts of statuettes. The latter 
are often left in the raw biscuit state, but even so it was customary to 
lacquer them over with gilding which was applied on a red medium. 


1 The lustre of this wash is compared by collectors with that of a snail’s track. The wash 
is apparently the fluxing material of the enamels without any colouring oxide. 


24 


PORCELAIN ENAMELLED ON THE BISCUIT 


Both the gold and the underlying red disappeared with time, and to-day 
the lacquered parts are usually bare, though the enquiring eye will often 
find traces of the red and gold still remaining in cavities and wrinkles. 

The general effect of the on-biscuit colours with their mat background 
is one of subdued splendour. The individual enamels are darker and 
softer than those of the on-glaze group, and the prevalence of the three- 
colour combination gives the ware a distinctive appearance. This style 
of decoration was used on porcelain of every shape and form, but it was 
specially suitable for statuettes and ornaments of complicated design, 
because the single enamel coating interfered less with the sharpness 
of the modelling than did the double coating of glaze and enamel. The 
glaze, indeed, if used as well as the enamels, was apt to flow thickly in 
the hollows of the model and to blunt the contours. 

Porcelain with on-biscuit enamels was made in the Ming period, and 
uncritical persons have considered this sufficient reason for calling it 
indiscriminately Ming. Nothing could be more misleading, as fully 
ninety per cent of the existing specimens belong to the Manchu period. 
If, however, anyone is still suffering from delusions of this kind, fostered 
by unscientific books and sale catalogues, we cannot do better than refer 
him to the extremely interesting little ink slab! in the British Museum, 
a typical specimen of this much be-Minged ware, but dated in the year 
1692. Further, the Dresden Collection, essentially K‘ang Hsi and almost 
entirely formed after the year 1694—not to mention other historic 
collections of the same period—contains a large series of these wares ; 
and the only reasonable proceeding is to regard them all as K‘ang Hsi 
unless some special grounds can be shown for an earlier attribution. 

This is a point which has been stressed before but must be insisted on, 
because nothing is harder to kill than an error which has been given such 
wide currency, and the on-biscuit porcelain is of great importance to 
collectors. It is, moreover, a very costly type, even if certain figures and 
groups belonging to it no longer command the exorbitant prices of ten 
years ago. They were unnaturally boomed and have suffered the inevitable 
slump. There is another matter for consideration, not unconnected with 
the boom and certainly part cause of the slump, and that is the fine crop 
of imitations which the unusual demand for this kind of ware has called 
into being. Both the Chinese and Japanese have proved themselves 
skilful copyists of this porcelain, and there are few severer tests for the 
expert to-day than those provided by the on-biscuit enamels. Some of 

1 See B.M. Guide, Fig. 87. 


25 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


the colours can be reproduced with disconcerting accuracy, and judicious’ 
“ rubbing ”’ will reduce the newness of the surface. The artificial dullness, 
however, is often overdone; and there is an ageing and mellowing of 
porcelain which only comes from time and there are genuine signs of wear 
which are difficult to counterfeit. The connoisseur knows how to look 
for these signs and also for that elusive virtue, style, which is rarely, if 
ever, attained by the modern copyist ; but he must be careful not to be 
taken off his guard or be forced to hasty decisions. 

The general effect of this kind of decoration can be seen on Plates 1 and 3 
to 10. The remarkable vase on Plate 1 (Frontispiece), modelled from a square 
bronze beaker with embattled edges, is decorated with a cleverly chosen 
design which holds the balance nicely between bronze and porcelain. The 
shou (longevity) character on the neck is appropriate to both, but the storks 
and the rock and wave border are more essentially ceramic. The imitation 
of bronze designs in porcelain was neither so frequent nor so exact in 
the K‘ang Hsi as in the succeeding periods. The Ch‘ien Lung purist 
would doubtless have kept rigidly to archaic bronze decoration for this 
beaker—with ogre heads on the bulb, stiff leaves on the neck, and dragon 
frets below. 

A combination of bronze form and porcelain designs appears in the 
marriage cup on Plate 5 with butterflies and shou character in a dotted 
green ground, These interesting vessels played an important part in 
the Chinese wedding ceremony, the bride and bridegroom pledging 
themselves in their contents, and they are decorated with symbolic 
ornament. The archaic dragon which winds round the bowl and forms 
a handle is an emblem of fertility, the character shou (longevity) speaks 
for itself, and the butterfly doubles! the good wishes implied. Another 
marriage cup with lotus design on a yellow ground is shown on Plate 33. 
Two tea-pots on Plate 4 are well-known K‘ang Hsi models. One has 
elaborate openwork panels on the sides, a type sometimes decorated 
in famille noire colours: the other is of the favourite bamboo pattern. 
Another tea-pot form, which figures among the élite of the on-biscuit 
porcelains, is the kettle shape illustrated by two rare specimens on 
Plates 34 and 35. 

As already hinted there are many figures of animal, bird, and human 
forms decorated with the on-biscuit enamels which provided colour 
without seriously impairing the sharpness of the modelling. The two 
pairs of Chinese ladies and gentlemen in the Leonard Gow Collection 

1 See p. 134. 
26 


PORCELAIN ENAMELLED ON THE BISCUIT 


shown on Plates 3 and 11 are exceptionally fine examples, and they 
have the added charm of representing typical Chinese individuals in 
simple, natural poses and dressed in the fashion of the time. The 
modelling in both cases is good, that of the smaller pair (Plate 3), 
with their lively gestures and infectious gaiety, unusually good. The 
lady here is carrying a small squirrel-like animal in her left hand, such as 
appears in the so-called ‘‘ rat and vine pattern ’’: the faces have a thin 
wash of greenish-white over the biscuit and there is a dry red pigment 
on the lady’s lips and on the man’s hat. Points to notice on the other 
pair (Plate 11) are the blue and red enamels which have been specially 
provided with pads of glaze; and the man’s pigtail which seems to indi- 
cate that these figures were modelled at a time when the pigtail, enforced 
by the Manchu conquerors, had ceased to be a reproach. 

The K‘ang Hsi figures are not all so attractive as these. Many of them 
are of a religious kind which had now become stereotyped. There are, 
of course, well-modelled figures of gods and demi-gods made at this time, 
but the bulk of them lack the strength and spontaneity of the Ming models 
and many of them are simply bizarre and grotesque. The animal figures 
of this period are more conspicuous for a certain grotesque humour than 
for truth to Nature. The horses are wooden as compared with those of 
the T‘ang potters, and even such a rare specimen as the black horse with 
his green-robed rider on Plate 6 is more notable for its colouring than 
for the modelling. The Buddhist guardian lions belong to a different 
category. They are fanciful creatures modelled with a certain humorous 
ferocity. A fine pair is illustrated on Plate 10, the male with his habitual 
ball of brocade and the female with a cub. The colouring of this pair is 
a good example of enamelling on the biscuit. Smaller editions of these 
lions, made for the domestic altar, were fitted with tubes to hold incense 
sticks, 

Some of the most pleasing models in the round are those of birds, such as 
the pair of parrots on Plate 5, with their gay plumage rendered in beautiful 
smooth enamels. The goose on Plate 33 and the black-plumaged bird on 
Plate 54 are other excellent specimens of good modelling, set off by the 
rare famille noire enamels. 

Other interesting examples of this kind of decoration are the writer’s 
box on Plate 35, and the lantern and square brush-pot on Plate 36, which 
also illustrate the skilful treatment of openwork of various kinds. The 
brush-pot bears the legend wén chang shan tou (composition lofty as the 
hills and the Great Bear) in characters reserved, one on each face, an 


27 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


appropriate inscription for a vessel destined to hold the weapons of a 
scholar and calligrapher. 

The on-biscuit enamels reach their culminating point in those sumptuous 
porcelains the decoration of which is set in a ground of black, yellow, or 
green. Collectors like to segregate these into sub-families, such as famille 
noire and famille jaune, but of these only the famille noire is of sufficiently 
substantial size to justify a separate treatment. The famille jaune is quite 
a small one, and the collector would indeed be fortunate who had enough 
of the green-ground vases to form a family by themselves. It is not to be 
supposed for a moment that the famille noire porcelain is common. On 
the contrary, it is very difficult to find good specimens and the supply is 
so unequal to the demand that the cost of it is fabulous. 

The feature of the famille noire, as its name implies, is the composite 
green-black enamel described on page 23, a brown-black pigment washed 
over with transparent green. The faint lustre which is rarely absent from 
the green enamel, particularly that of any considerable age, gives this black 
the soft greenish reflexions of a raven’s wing ; and it is difficult to imagine 
any more splendid setting for a floral design in green, yellow, aubergine 
and white. The shapes of the famille notre vases are worthy of the decora- 
tion. Whether ovoid, baluster, or beaker-shaped, club-shaped (rouleau), 
or square, covered jars or what not, they have the virtues of the best K‘ang 
Hsi potting, truth of form and elegance of line. The designs are of the 
usual kind—growing flowers and plants, dragons, etc., and occasionally 
figures and landscapes; but the most popular and the most attractive is 
undoubtedly that in which the central motive is the blossoming prunus 
tree with aubergine trunk, green foliage, and white blossoms which on a few 
rare specimens are picked out with red (see Plate 39). By the root of the tree 
is an ornamental rockery in two shades of green: a few bamboos and grasses 
grow near by; while bright-plumaged birds hovering in the branches, 
and perhaps a pair of rabbits at the foot of the tree, complete the picture. 
Yellow is sparingly used, but a few touches of it on the birds give the 
necessary sparkle to the colour scheme. On the square vases, groups of 
flowering plants representing the four seasons are effectively disposed, 
one on each panel—the peony for spring, lotus for summer, chrysanthe- 
mum for autumn, and prunus for winter—with their usual adjuncts of 
rockery, birds, and insects (Plate 7); and on the big covered jars or 
potiches the spacious design of pheasants or phcenixes on a rock amid 
flowering plants—tree peony, hydrangea, etc.—is attractively displayed. 
Very rarely the black ground is used to surround panel decoration. 


28 


PORCELAIN ENAMELLED ON THE BISCUIT 


The famille noire does not consist of vases and large pieces only. There 
are saucer dishes, bowls, ewers, drinking and libation cups, and innumer- 
able other objects of use and ornament ; and it even admitted to its select 
circle cups and saucers, tea-pots, and other objects intended for export to 
Europe. 

The famille noire is amply illustrated. Plate B in the edition de luxe 
shows a magnificent beaker-shaped vase in the Leonard Gow Collection, 
of the form which the Chinese call yen yen, with the familiar but never 
stale design of flowering prunus, rockery and birds. The drawing of this 
beautiful subject is admirable: the gnarled trunk is artistically disposed 
and the blossoms though rendered with scrupulous care hang light and free. 
A square club-shaped vase in the same collection has the same theme no 
less finely rendered ; and a pair of familiar vases in the Drucker Collection 
in the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, are notable for their rare red-blossomed 
prunus and for their happy alternation of the design, the boughs ascending 
on one vase and descending on the other. Plate 7 shows how appro- 
priately the flowers of the four seasons are used on these four-sided vases : 
the neck of this piece is varied with diaper patterns in which are propitious 
ju-i ornaments and medallions of archaic dragons. The elegant covered 
jar on Plate 6 is one of a pair belonging to Mr. Leonard Gow. 

It will be observed that in the finer pieces where the black had to be 
applied in large areas, it is not permitted to appear in too solid masses. 
On the contrary, it is usually broken and graded in artistic fashion and full 
of life. This is conspicuously the case with the two noble vases shown on 
Plates B and 7, though the difficulty of reproducing the black ground has 
prevented the full effect appearing in the pictures. 

The black enamel was used in the reigns which followed K‘ang Hsi, but 
it underwent a change both in style and composition. The typical Ch‘ien 
Lung black is closely diapered with floral scrolls in green or with brocade 
patterns in famille rose enamels, and one rarely sees the colour used in 
large areas as on the K‘ang Hsi porcelain. We have noted, too, that in some 
of the later blacks the pigment was actually mixed with the enamel, which 
produced a more solid effect, and again a later black is formed of black 
pigment washed with the colourless ‘* white ” of the on-biscuit palette. 
But we shall refer to these later blacks again. There are, of course, frankly 
modern imitations of the K‘ang Hsi famille noire, in which some of the 
colours are passably reproduced ; but the black is always sticky and shines 
with an unnatural lustre quite different from the iridescence produced by 
age. Apart from their enamels even the best of these imitations lack the 


29 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


form and stylish potting of the old, and the ware exposed at the base betrays 
them at once. They should deceive no one. But there are other imitations, 
of quite another calibre, built up with an ingenuity worthy of a better 
cause. In these the ware exposed at the base no longer betrays the forger 
but conspires with him, for it is the base of a genuine K‘ang Hsi vase. It 
may be that a new body has been built up on this foundation,’ or that a 
less imposing decoration has been “ skinned ”’ off an old vase and the 
whole reclothed with enamels of a more costly type. 

The work done by the redecorators of these pieces is highly skilled and 
no pains are spared to give the enamels the proper K‘ang Hsi appearance ; 
so that in the excitement of ‘‘ making a discovery ’’ an enthusiast may 
easily be carried away by such a specimen, where a critical eye will detect 
weakness and stiffness in the drawing,—for no modern imitator really 
succeeds in catching the freedom of the original—something suspicious 
about the colours and the inevitable signs of refiring on the base. If the 
piece has been subjected to the brutal process of skinning, a careful examina- 
tion is almost bound to reveal lathe-marks or other incriminating signs, 
apart from the discoloration and black specks on the base caused by the 
refiring. But these deceits make the hazards of the game, and without 
them collecting would undoubtedly lose much of its zest. 

What has been said of the famille noire applies almost verbatim to the 
famille jaune with the obvious difference that the green-black ground is 
replaced by yellow. Otherwise the technique is the same and the same 
forms and decorations appear, and the same set of forgers are busy trying 
to produce colourable imitations. Though smaller specimens with yellow 
ground are to be seen in most collections, the larger vases of this group 
are decidedly rarer than the famille noire. The Londoner is fortunate 
in having the Salting Collection (V. and A. Museum) where he can see 
several good examples, and the British Museum where there is at any rate 
one. The Port Sunlight Collection, which is very rich in famille notre, 
has also one or two good yellow-ground vases. In all these specimens the 
yellow varies considerably. On the British Museum vase it is distinctly 
muddy and brownish, while on others it is clear and of a transparent 
primrose tint. Doubtless this latter was the ideal aimed at, but success 
was rarely attained and more or less brown clouding is generally noticeable. 


1 Very skilful work has been done in replacing necks, shoulders and even larger portions 
of broken vases both in China and in Paris. The replacements are done in porcelain and 
the joins are cleverly masked by the enamels. The collector will be on the watch for 
these repaired pieces 


30 


PORCELAIN ENAMELLED ON THE BISCUIT 


We are fortunate in being able to give a few excellent examples from the 
Leonard Gow Collection. There is nothing amiss with the mottled 
yellow ground of the handsome potiche on Plate g, in which is displayed 
the well-known design of a rockery and pheasant, with flowering plants 
and trees. This design is probably of Sung origin! and it was a favourite 
with the K‘ang Hsi decorators who used it impartially on blue and white 
and famille verte porcelains. The hexagonal covered vase on Plate 8 with 
similar design in a clear yellow ground evidently belonged to a set of five. 
The same form is seen in sets of famille noire vases and beakers. The yellow 
of the bowl on Plate 3 is almost perfect in its evenness and purity of tone ; 
it surrounds a beautifully drawn design of cranes and lotus plants. 

If we substitute transparent green for yellow in the above we have a de- 
scription of the third and rarest of these sub-families. Large vases with 
green enamel grounds are excessively rare, and it would not take long to 
compile a complete list of those which are known. 

Smaller objects of this group, such as bowls and table ware, are rather 
more frequently seen, but even these are difficult to obtain. There are 
several shades of green enamel, a dark leaf-green, a cucumber-green, pale 
apple-green and emerald. The last but one is a singularly beautiful ground 
colour. One of the best of the known green-ground vases, that in the 
Franks Collection (British Museum)?, has a lovely prunus design on a 
mottled leaf-green ground. There are also notable examples in the Salting 
Collection, most of which have been already published?®. 

No one has yet segregated an aubergine family, but this attractive colour 
is occasionally used for the background of small vases and ornaments. 

It is seen, for instance, on bowls, of which there is a beautiful pair in the 

Anthony de Rothschild Collection ; and we are able to illustrate a rare 
example of a vase with bold dragon design in an aubergine ground from 
the Leonard Gow Collection (Plate 8). Another vase on the same Plate 
is one of a pair with lightly moulded leaf panels with yellow grounds : 
on the shoulders is a passage of reticulated green, the cracked ice pattern. 
The green ice pattern is sometimes effectively used as a background for 
panel decoration, as on a deep bowl in the Eumorfopoulos Collection which 
has the curious G mark,‘ 


1 There are many repetitions of it in pictorial art, among which is a picture in the British 
Museum by the Ming painter Wang Yu. 

2 Figured C.P.P., Plate 96. 

8 See Gorer and Blacker, Chinese Porcelain and Hard Stones, Plates 27, 28, 36, and 4o. 

4 See p. 143. 


31 


CHAPTER IV 


FAMILLE VERTE PORCELAIN 
ENAMELLED ON THE GLAZE 


The second and larger group of famille verte porcelains is decorated with 
enamels applied over the glaze. The enamel colours are the same as those 
of the on-biscuit class, but the different method of application results in 
an appreciable difference in their appearance. Backed by the radiant foil 
of white glaze they shine clearer and brighter, and more play is made 
with the beautiful violet-blue and the coral red which are quite at home on 
the new medium. Nor is there any longer need to cover the porcelain 
completely, and the artist, who has now greater freedom for his brush, 
can build up a nicely balanced decoration in which the white ground has 
its proper share. There is undoubtedly more room for artistry here. 
The method of painting the famille verte designs is much the same as that 
employed on the blue and white. The picture is first outlined in red or 
brown and the colours are washed in with a full brush. The forms of the 
ware are also much the same and the designs are chosen from the same 
repertoire, though more use is made of birds and flowers and of certain 
brocade patterns which are particularly suited to coloured decoration. 

Pére d’Entrecolles tells us that the porcelain destined for enamel decora- 
tion was given a glaze in which there was less of the softening element 
(lime and fern ashes), a glaze stronger and more opaque than that used in 
the blue and white ; and the collector will often have noticed that the glaze 
of some of the famille verte has a peculiarly warm and creamy tone. The 
second firing in the enamel kiln was liable to injure the softer glazes, and 
that is why the finer underglaze blue is rarely seen in combination with 
enamel colours. The old Ming method of using enamels and underglaze 
blue together was never abandoned by the Chinese, but it is rarely seen 
on the superior famille verte of the K‘ang Hsi period. Nor was the com- 
bination any longer necessary, because the blue element was now efficiently 
supplied by the violet-blue enamel. 

It is always interesting to read contemporary criticisms of the things 
which age has rendered almost sacrosanct; and the remarks of Pére 
d’Entrecolles on the famille verte which he saw coming fresh from the 
kiln are well worth quoting. Writing in 1712 of the “ porcelain painted 
with landscapes in a medley of almost all the colours heightened with 
gilding ’’ he allows that they are very beautiful, if one pays a high price; 
but the ordinary wares of this kind are not, he says, to be compared with 


32 


FAMILLE VERTE ENAMELLED ON THE GLAZE 


blue and white. And again, ‘‘ sometimes the painting is intentionally 
reserved for the second firing; at other times they only use the second 
firing to conceal defects in the porcelain, applying the colours to faulty 
places. This porcelain, which is loaded with colours, is not to the taste of 
a good many people. As a rule one can feel the inequalities on the surface, 
whether due to the clumsiness of the workmen, to the exigences of light 
and shade, or to the desire to conceal defects in the body of the ware.” 

Most of us will agree with much of this criticism. We feel at times that 
the colour in certain pieces has very little point except to cover up a faulty 
surface, and there are, especially among the export famille verte wares, 
pieces which are obviously overloaded with a confused medley of designs. 
It is only the gay colouring of the enamels which commends this kind of 
porcelain for the decoration of our rooms. As to the inequalities of surface 
which displeased the worthy father’s eye, no collector will admit that they 
are in any way defects in themselves, although they often suffer from the 
defects of their virtues. Nor are they due to clumsy workmanship or the 
desire to conceal flaws. The truth is the vitrifiable enamels cannot coalesce 
with the hard porcelain glaze; and as they contain only a tiny percentage 
of colouring matter, no depth of colour can be obtained without piling 
them on thickly. ‘‘ Heaped and piled ”’ is the old Ming expression for 
these enamels when liberally used; and so they often stand out like 
encrusted jewels on the surface of the ware. This condition makes for 
beauty and brilliancy ; but, if the ware is submitted to rough usage, the 
outstanding enamel must inevitably suffer. In some cases it may even 
scale off: in others it is merely dulled by wear. 

If the good specimens were only obtainable at a high price in 1712, we 
wonder what Pére d’Entrecolles would think of the market to-day. Even 
the moderate pieces are difficult to find and costly to buy, much dearer 
as a rule than blue and white of equal quality ; and the finer specimens, 
though not so highly priced as the on-biscuit wares, are only within reach 
of very long purses. 

The dating of famille verte is not an exact science, but it is possible to 
trace a certain chronological sequence in the different types. In the early 
Ch‘ing wares made for native use one observes a certain rugged strength 
of design and colour approximating to that of the Ming. The enamels 
are applied in broad washes: there are masses of dark green: less prom- 
inence is given to the violet-blue, and gilding is little used. The export 
wares of this period can be identified by their likeness to the blue and white 
of the Table Bay group (see p. 8). They are of the same crisp and much- 


33 D 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


moulded kind, with bands of petal-shaped compartments and foliations 
in low relief and corresponding depressions. Flowering plants fill these 
compartments which usually radiate from a central design of kylin and 
pheenix, graceful ladies, or landscape. 

The zenith of the famille verte is reached in the second period which starts 
from the renaissance of 1680. To this period we may date the magnificent 
vases and dishes with panelled designs set out in richly brocaded grounds, 
and all the most sumptuous and costly types. This is the time when the 
greater part of the Dresden Collection was brought together by Augustus 
the Strong, a collection which remains the best training ground in the world 
for the student of K‘ang Hsi porcelain. It is true that dated specimens 
are extremely rare, but there is one in the Hippisley Collection? with a 
cyclical date corresponding to 1703. It is a square, club-shaped vase finely 
painted with landscape subjects, clearly belonging to the highest class of 
famille verte, 

Plates 12 to 18 illustrate specimens of famille verte of the best period. 
The splendid bowl with red-blossomed prunus on Plate 17 has in the in- 
terior a design of salmon leaping the falls in front of a building labelled 
lung mén (dragon gate), the significance of which is explained on page 125. 
Fig. 3 of Plate 16 is a square vase with scenes illustrating the Four Liberal 
Accomplishments (painting, writing, music, and checkers) on its four sides 
and shou (longevity) characters on the neck. On Plate 13 is a fine pair of 
vases of yen yen shape, the one with a martial subject probably taken from 
the Shui hu Chuan (stories of brigands in the reign of the Sung Emperor 
Hui Tsung), the other with a scene of civil pomp. They are the wu p‘ing 
and wén p’ing, military and civil vases?. The glorious dish on Plate 15, with 
the attractive picture of the Court ladies picking lotuses in the Imperial 
presence at the Peking Lotus Festival, is a masterpiece of composition and 
colour. 

Among the uncoloured illustrations Plates 40 and 45 show two delightful 
vases. One, from the A. de Rothschild Collection, with beautiful ovoid 
body and a finely spaced design in brilliant colours, has the unusual feature 
of a porcelain stand made with and attached to the vase. The other, 
from the Reginald Cory Collection, is club-shaped and painted in rather 
delicate shades of the famille verte enamels, which suggest a later period 
in the reign of K‘ang Hsi. These vases are typical of two of the choicer 
kinds of famille verte decoration, in which large birds and large ladies 
respectively are the centres of attraction, There are good examples of both 

1 Figured C.P.P., Plate 104. 4 See Petain 


34 


FAMILLE VERTE ENAMELLED ON THE GLAZE 


these types in the Dresden Collection. A domestic scene with ladies and 
children is delightfully rendered on a large dish (Plate 41) in the Gaspard 
Farrer Collection, which, apart from its fine workmanship, has many 
interesting details such as the big fish-bowl full of fishes, the parrot swing- 
ing on a perch and the portentous spider’s web which seems to be regarded 
with interest rather than disgust by the ladies of the house. The ewer on 
Plate 42 and the bottle and goblet on Plate 43, conspicuous for the jewel- 
like quality of the enamels, belong to the better class of export wares. 
All these specimens illustrate the effect of fine drawing and colouring 
offset by the white porcelain ground. 

The other examples are of the “‘ brocaded ” type, in which the pictorial 
designs are confined to panels set in grounds of rich brocade patterns. 
Plate 12 illustrates one of a pair of magnificent rouleau vases in the 
R. T. Woodman Collection, which show this class of ware at its best. 
The purity and lustre of the enamels, the large panels with favourite 
subjects—landscape with animals and birds, rockery and flowering plants, 
etc.—finely drawn, and the surrounds of lovely green and yellow brocade 
combine to produce a sumptuous effect. The kuan-yin vase on Plate D 
(édition de luxe) is not less brilliant, and here, too, the size of the panels 
is a distinctive feature of the decoration. In the two vases of square 
and round club-shape on Plate 16 the brocade ground plays a larger 
part, and the panels are small though numerous and fancifully formed 
in fan, leaf, peach, pomegranate, and other shapes. The brocades are 
usually of a delicate shade of pale green diapered with dots or small circles— 
from which they have got the not very elegant names of frog-spawn and 
fish-roe patterns—and they are strewn with small ornaments, usually 
blossoms and butterflies, but sometimes, as on Fig. 2, with vases and 
symbols taken from the Hundred Antiques.1 The pair of splendid covered 
jars on Plates 14 and 14a, decorated in the same style, are conspicuous 
for their fine violet-blue enamel. Incidentally, Plate 14 illustrates a 
favourite design of the Chinese decorator, the large basket of flowers 
which fills the centre of many beautiful famille verte dishes. A little 
underglaze blue appears on the knobs of the covers and in the border rings. 
Other brocade patterns are seen on the pair of covered scrap-bowls on 
Plate 18 with a design of peony scrolls and flying phcenixes: on the fine 
flower-pot on Plate 42, and on the dish on Plate 43. The last, with its 
green water and crested waves, in which are sea horses, fishes, symbols, 
and floating prunus blossoms, is one of those patterns which are ever- 

1 See p. 136. 


35 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


lastingly be-Minged because they occasionally occur on late Ming porce- 
lain. Here we have it on a typical K‘ang Hsi dish, with the leaf-symbol 
mark and the wide grooved foot-rim, both of which are characteristic 
of the period. 

A small group of brocaded porcelain is distinguished by the use of coral 
red as a ground colour, in which floral scrolls are reserved and either left 
white or touched with colour. Plate 19 illustrates a pair of bottle-shaped 
vases and a slender ovoid covered jar with panels of flowering plants 
and po ku emblems enclosed by coral brocade; and on Plate C (édition 
de luxe) is a pair of cylindrical covered jars with rose and ticket! pattern 
in a coral ground. Occasionally the diapered red covers the entire surface 
of a vase, but this massive use of the colour is rather overpowering and 
it is usually relieved by bands or lambrequins of green brocade, as seen 
in our illustrations. 

Finally, in the third period which apparently dates from the last years 
of K‘ang Hsi, we find a delicacy of treatment quite foreign to the virile 
famille verte of the early stages. The painting is miniature-like and the 
colours delicate and refined and applied with mechanical precision. It 
is the style of the famille rose, but expressed in the transparent enamels 
of the green family; and the effect is dainty in the extreme, if rather 
effeminate. Typical examples of this class are the well-known “ birth- 
day ’”’ plates (Plates 46 and 47) of beautiful eggshell porcelain with a finely 
painted floral design in the middle and the Imperial birthday greeting 
(a myriad longevities without ending !) in the border. They are reputed 
to have been made for the sixtieth birthday of the Emperor, which fell 
in 1713; but there is no foundation for this picturesque story, and the 
plates would have done equally well on any other birthday anniversary. 
It is more probable that this type of ware, of which other specimens will 
be described later, belongs to the extreme end of the K‘ang Hsi and 
continued into the Yung Chéng and even into the Ch‘ien Lung period 
(Plate 63). The same style of painting will be recognised in mixed enamels 
on some of the finer porcelains of these later reigns. 

A pair of rare eggshell porcelain lanterns in the A. de Rothschild Collection 
(Plate 46) belong to the later part of the reign, if we can judge from the 
delicacy of the colouring; though one can hardly imagine porcelain like 
this, which is almost as thin as paper, being decorated with enamels of 
greater weight. Mr. Harvey Hadden’s dish (Plate 48, Fig. 2) has the 
same form and the same fine potting as the birthday plates and, like them, 

1 See p. 15. 
36 


FAMILLE VERTE ENAMELLED ON THE GLAZE 


the K’ang Hsi mark ; but it is painted with a larger brush. The beautiful 
lotus, with its broad leaf and full blossoms, is superbly rendered in smooth, 
sleek enamels, and apparently by the artist who painted some of the 
choicest specimens in the Dresden Collection. 

We must assign to the same late period of the reign the dainty flask- 
shaped bottle (Plate 47, Fig. 1) in the Levy Collection. The potting 
of this piece is very good and the two archaic dragons which form the 
handles are modelled with spirit : the medallions on either face are painted 
with the miniature-like touches and the delicate enamels of the birthday 
plates, the subjects being landscape with a mythical monster (hai shou) 
on one side and a pair of deer, a pair of birds and ling chih fungus on 
the other. On the border is a brocade pattern with soft apple-green 
ground powdered with dots. 

The famille verte, however, had now run its course, and, like the K‘ang 
Hsi blue and white, it gave way before the growing popularity of the 
famille rose. But, like the blue and white, it was never wholly abandoned ; 
and we see occasional instances of the old colouring on shapes which are 
fully a century later than K‘ang Hsi. Symptoms of the change of fashion, 
however, are apparent in the later wares of the K‘ang Hsi period. The 
rose-pink—at first a rather muddy mauve-pink—appears in the second 
decade of the 18th century and it is followed by a few other opaque 
enamels, timidly at first but with increasing persistence. One of the 
colours which was important to the famille rose palette, because it was 
used for blending, seems to have been known at Ching-té Chén as early 
as 1712.2. This is the arsenical white, an opaque enamel, very effectively 
used on the greenish-white porcelain ground. But the real period of 
transition is the reign of Yung Chéng and we shall return later to the 
development of the famille rose. 

In their search for variety the K‘ang Hsi potters tried the effect of 
famille verte enamels over other glazes besides the white. We see them, 
for instance, on a lang yao green glaze on a bowl in the British Museum. 
This particular green will be discussed later; but if, as one suspects, it 
was an accidental colour which came from misfiring a red glaze, we can 
understand that the enamels were used here to disguise a faulty specimen. 
We suspect, too, the same intention in the case of some of the powder- 
blue pieces which have been treated to decoration in famille verte colours ; 
but there are cases in which no such ulterior motive can be discerned, 


1 See Zimmermann, op. cit., Plate 108. 
2 It is described by Pére d’Entrecolles. See Bushell, op. cit., p. 194. 


37 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


and here we have to recognise a bona-fide decoration even if we cannot 
regard it as a success. The brilliant powder-blue is not a suitable back- 
ground for the transparent enamels, which are in fact completely eclipsed 
by it. The pale grey crackle and the light Nanking yellow glazes proved 
much more amenable; but they are not comparable with the white glaze 
for giving value to the enamels. 

As already hinted, the traditions of the late Ming “‘ five colour ” ware 
had not been entirely abandoned, and we still find the famille verte enamels 
combined with underglaze blue. The defect of this kind of decoration 
lay in the difficulty of refiring the ware in the enamel kiln without 
compromising the blue; and so we rarely find the potters risking their 
best blue on wares of this type. Pére d’Entrecolles warns us that defective 
specimens of blue and white were sometimes camouflaged with enamelled 
designs, but these should be readily recognised because the blue designs 
will be complete in themselves and the colouring obviously a second 
thought. In the true “ five-colour ’’ scheme the blue forms only a part 
of the design. This is well seen in the few unfinished pieces which 
accident has preserved for our edification. In such we find figures or 
flowers faintly outlined and partly filled in with blue, the remainder 
evidently waiting for finishing touches in enamel. The designs on this 
kind of ware are generally in Ming style; but there is one large and 
interesting group in which this technique is used to express designs of 
another kind. This is the Chinese “ Imari.” 

To explain this hybrid ware we must make a brief digression. The 
Japanese after many efforts succeeded in making a good porcelain in the 
17th century. Suitable materials were found in the district of Arita, in 
the province of Hizen, and when the Dutch, who had been allowed to 
establish a settlement on the Island of Deshima, visited the Nagasaki 
fair in 1662 they found a native porcelain on sale which promised to be 
a profitable article of trade in Europe. It was a fine white ware, sparingly 
but tastefully decorated in pale blue, green, yellow, and soft Indian red 
enamels in a style which still bears the name of its reputed originator, 
Kakiemon. This Kakiemon ware met with considerable success in 
Europe and we find frequent references to it as ‘‘ Old Japan” and 
“‘ premiére sorte colorieé ”’ in the 18th-century catalogues. It was, more- 
over, freely copied by European potters and porcelain makers. But the 
Dutch traders did not altogether approve of its quiet, reserved designs, 
and the story goes that one of their number suggested to the Japanese 
a more complex style based on brocade patterns, At any rate another 


38 


FAMILLE VERTE ENAMELLED ON THE GLAZE 


type of ware was forthcoming which was shipped in quantities to Europe 
and enjoyed in the West a popularity never realised in Japan. This second 
type is distinguished as “‘ old Imari,’’ Imari being the port of Arita, and 
it is a rather coarse, greyish porcelain, heavily decorated with masses 
of dark, impure underglaze blue which is supplemented by red and gold 
and enamels. The designs are mostly irregular and rather confused, 
asymmetrical panels surrounded by mixed brocade patterns and contain- 
ing figures, pheenixes, lions, sketchy landscapes or baskets of flowers, half 
Chinese and half Japanese in style. But for all its extravagance and 
crudeness this porcelain with its masses of dark blue, red and gold has 
considerable decorative value, and if we may judge from numerous 
specimens in the Dresden and other old collections, it found willing 
purchasers in Europe. The Japanese themselves, though they had no 
liking for the coarse export types, devised a modified scheme of decoration 
on similar lines, in which the Imperial devices, the chrysanthemum and 
the kiri, played a prominent part, and they seem to have continued to 
make this kind of ware to the present day. 

Such was the demand for the Japanese goods that the Chinese at Ching-té 
Chén were forced to meet the competition by imitating the work of their 
rivals, Both types, the Kakiemon and the old Imari, were closely copied 
by the Chinese, and it is a common occurrence to see the Chinese “‘ Imari”’ 
offered for sale to-day as Japanese. The connoisseur, however, will detect 
certain differences. The Chinese porcelain is thinner and crisper: it 
has a smooth, oily glaze of greenish tinge and is usually slightly browned 
at the edge of the foot-rim. The Japanese is white or greyish, heavier, 
and usually coarser, with a ‘‘ musliny”’ texture of glaze (due to quantities 
of tiny air bubbles), and the plates and dishes usually have a few spur 
marks beneath the imprint of the little supports on which the vessel 
rested in the kiln. The Chinese underglaze blue is clearer and purer, 
and, even if not of the finest blue-and-white quality, it is greatly superior 
to the dull Japanese colour: the soft Indian red and the thick sealing-wax 
red of the Japanese are both easily distinguished from the coral tint of the 
Chinese ; and if black is used, as it is occasionally on the Imari wares, 
it is a brown-black in contrast with the green-black of the Chinese. 

The bulk of the Chinese Imari dates from the last half of the K’ang 
Hsi period, but the manufacture continued into the succeeding reign. 
Indeed, we find references in the list! of wares made at the Imperial 
factory in the Yung Chéng period to gilt and silvered porcelains 

1 See p. 63. 


39 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


“copying the Japanese,’’ which may perhaps be an allusion to the Imari 
types. 

There is another large but not very aristocratic family of porcelains 
which appears to be an offshoot of the Chinese Imari. It is decorated 
in red and gold and underglaze blue, but, though the colouring and 
general style resembles the Imari, the designs have no suggestion of 
Japanese origin. This ‘ red-and-blue family” is evidently an export 
type and it consists mainly of plates, dishes, jugs, shaving bowls and other 
articles of domestic use. It has a certain decorative value, but it rarely, 
if ever, rises to the status of cabinet porcelain. The date of its manu- 
facture is the first half of the 18th century. 


40 


CHAPTER V 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROME 
PORCELAIN 


If glaze is la qualité maitresse de la céramique, Chinese monochromes should 
be the rage among collectors. In this kind of porcelain the Chinese are 
supreme and unchallenged. They excelled in the early days of the Sung 
period, and in the Ch‘ing dynasty they were masters of such a range of 
coloured glazes that the mere enumeration of them is a formidable task. 
But enthusiastic collectors of monochromes have always been very scarce 
in England. It may be that the colours do not show to their full advantage 
under our grey skies and that we need more play of light and shade, but 
for ten pieces of blue and white or famille verte in English collections 
you will scarcely find one monochrome. The French, on the other hand, 
have always taken pleasure in them. In the 18th century they delighted 
to use them for decorating their luxurious rooms; and to bring them 
into harmony with their surroundings, they commissioned first-rate artists 
like Gouthiére and Caffieri to mount them in extravagant ormolu. Dark 
blue,1 sky blue, turquoise, celadon, rouge flambé, and truitée (crackle) 
glazes appear repeatedly in the old French catalogues and in the notebooks 
of French ormolu makers; and the names of arbiters of taste such as 
Madame de Pompadour are found among their purchasers. 

It was genuine appreciation of their colours that prompted the French 
to fit the monochrome porcelains with fine rococo mounts; but the 
collector of porcelain, as distinct from the lover of ornamental furniture, 
regards it to-day as a doubtful compliment, and he would prefer to enjoy 
the form and colour of the ware undisturbed by the vagaries of the 
ormolu. 

But nowhere have the monochromes found such whole-hearted devotees 
as in the United States. Many collectors there demand nothing else, and 
as they are prepared to pay incredible prices for the objects of their desire, 
the tendency is for the choicer specimens to cross the Atlantic, and one 
regrets in preparing a book like this that it is not possible to draw on 
American cabinets for coloured illustrations. 

The best period for the Ch‘ing monochromes is between 1680 and 1750, 
the time when Ts‘ang, Nien, and T‘ang were directors of the Imperial 
factory ; and though we shall attempt to treat the wares of the K‘ang Hsi, 


1 The name of Cardinal Mazarin is so closely associated with one kind of blue mono- 
chrome that the word mazarine has passed current in our language for blue. 


4I 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


Yung Chéng, and Ch‘ien Lung periods under separate headings, it will be 
realised that many of the coloured glazes are common to all three reigns 
and that it is often extremely difficult to differentiate them. In this delicate 
task of differentiation the connoisseur must depend largely on his sense 
of style and his power to recognise the K‘ang Hsi forms and the finish of 
the K‘ang Hsi potting from those of the succeeding periods. 

Inheriting the traditions of the Ming potters the K‘ang Hsi manufacturers 
started with a large variety of single-colour glazes, and besides ringing the 
changes on these they were able to add many new or improved types of 
their own. 

The first to be considered is obviously the white. White is the colour 
prescribed for use at the Court during periods of mourning, and as such 
periods were prolonged in China and Court usage was doubtless followed 
by fashionable people, the demand for white ware on this score alone must 
have been considerable. White was also the colour used in the worship 
of the Year-Star. But the demand for white wares was not dependent on 
ceremonial usage only. Their simple elegance makes a very general 
appeal, 

The white monochromes are not mere undecorated porcelain. Having 
no gay colours to distract the eye from possible defects of form and surface 
they had to be fashioned with particular care. Perfect shape and flawless 
glaze were demanded; and we read without surprise that special supplies 
of fine clay and stone were reserved for the white porcelain. The finer 
wares are of eggshell thinness, the body being pared down on the lathe 
till it is almost non-existent and the vessel seems to be held together 
by the glaze alone. The Chinese give this thin porcelain the expressive 
name of t'o t‘ai (bodiless), and they also recognise a slightly stouter variety 
under the name of “‘ half bodiless.”” Pére d’Entrecolles,! writing in 1722, 
alludes to the recent manufacture of porcelain for the Emperor so thin 
and delicate that it had to be placed on cotton-wool for fear of damage, 
and, as it was not safe to hold it and dip it in the glaze, the glaze had to be 
blown on to it. 

There were many ways of decorating the white ware without destroying 
its character. There were the an hua, or secret decorations, so much 
exploited by the Ming potters. These included traceries of liquid white 
clay or gypsum, incised, engraved or moulded designs, all of which were 
covered over by the glaze and were generally seen to the best advantage by 
transmitted light. The incised designs were sometimes traced with a 

1 Bushell, op. cit., p. 211, 


42 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROME PORCELAIN 


needle point in the soft body of the ware; or on the stouter pieces the 
decoration was outlined with a point and then carved round the edges 
So as to give it slight relief. In the commoner specimens a floral pattern— 
a chrysanthemum or lotus flower—was boldly cut in the paste and showed 
clearly through the glaze. Dishes, cups and saucers, and other table ware 
destined for Europe were sometimes decorated in this fashion; and they 
have been treated with scant respect by the European decorators who 
have covered them with enamelled designs. 

Another method of decoration was piercing a jour, often in fretwork of 
astonishing delicacy. This kuet kung or devil’s work (the Chinese name 
is a tribute to the superhuman skill of the potters who executed it) is another 
survival of Ming technique. It was sometimes combined with carving, 
the porcelain body being treated like a piece of ivory. If the vessel was 
intended to hold liquid, it was fitted with a solid core and the piercing 
appeared only on the outer shell, or may be it was given a metal lining. 
Such tours de force as these were not confined to the white wares and we 
find the delicate fretwork often coloured with enamels, on the biscuit or 
otherwise. Occasionally, too, the potters showed their extraordinary 
manipulative skill by fitting a revolving belt to the waist of a vase or free 
working rings and chains with loose links to the handles. 

Low reliefs were sometimes built up on the white wares by shavings of 
clay worked up with a wet brush. These were usually left free of glaze, 
as were the high reliefs which were modelled separately and luted on to 
the ware with liquid clay. On the other hand, the white ware is sometimes 
encrusted with glazed flowers in applied relief, but this decoration is less 
common on K‘ang Hsi wares than on those of later date. 

White ware entirely free of glaze (biscuit, as it is generally called) does 
not seem to have been as much in fashion with the Chinese as it was with 
the European porcelain makers; but, if we do not meet with ambitious 
statuettes like those made of the beautiful biscuit de Sévres, we do occa- 
sionally see small figures of Buddhist Arhats and lions in this material. 
There are several in the British Museum and curiously enough they are 
all stamped with the names of potters (Chiang Ming-kao and Ch‘én Kuo- 
chih!) which in itself is a rare occurrence on Chinese porcelain. Biscuit 
porcelain is quaintly named fan tz‘i (turned porcelain) by the Chinese, as 
though it were porcelain turned inside out. A touch of glaze on some 
inner part of the piece helps to keep up this illusion. 

Nor must we forget the exquisite cream white ware which is a descendant 

1 See p. 147. 


43 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


of the old Sung Ting ware and is actually known as fén ting of the Ch‘ing 
dynasty. It has an opaque earthy-looking body, like that of the “* steatitic ”” 
porcelain! but apparently made with a special ingredient called ch‘ing tien 
stone; and its glaze is soft-looking, creamy, and usually crackled. Like 
the ‘‘steatitic’’ it was evidently an expensive ware and only used on fine, 
ornamental objects mostly of small size such as snuff-bottles, vases for 
a single flower and the implements of the scholar’s writing-table. Ware 
of the same kind in imitation of the Sung Ting yao was made with success 
in the 16th century, and it will often be difficult to distinguish the Ming 
and Ch‘ing pieces when they have, as is commonly the case, archaic form 
and ornament based on old Sung models. It would be difficult to imagine 
anything more dainty than the finer wares of this class made in the K‘ang 
Hsi, Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung periods; but they are rare to-day 
and extremely costly. 

The fine quality of the white porcelain is seen on a bottle on Plate 49 and 
another on Plate 50: the form and finish in both cases are up to the best 
standard. Fig. 2 of Plate 49 is a specimen of the creamy Ting type with 
earthy body and faintly crackled glaze, but it is almost certainly a Ch‘ien 
Lung piece; and Fig. 1 of Plate 51 which probably belongs to the same 
period is an exquisite specimen of one of the special types, an eggshell 
porcelain highly transparent but with a pearly white glaze with undulating 
“ orange peel ’’ surface and irregular crackle stained red. 

In passing to the coloured glazes we should explain that a few only of 
the colours are developed like the white glaze in the full heat of the porcelain 
kiln. Others, the lead silicates, can only be fired in the temperate parts 
of the kiln and these are added to a body already “‘ biscuited.’’ There are, 
thus, two groups, the “‘ high fired ’’ and “* medium fired ”’ glazes or, as the 
French term them, glazes of the grand feu and demi-grand feu. Beside 
these there are numerous enamels, which were used as glazes, and fired 
in the muffle kiln. These may be called enamel-glazes or glazes of the 
petit feu. The great variety of colours in the Chinese monochromes is 
obtained from a few metallic oxides and we shall group our classification 
round these. 

Cobalt supplied the numerous shades of blue—dark blue (ta ch‘ing) and 
deep sky blue (chi ch‘ing), pale sky blue, slaty blue, dark and light lavender 
blue and the palest clair de lune or “‘ moon white ’’ (yiieh pai). They vary 
in depth and tint with the quantity and quality of the cobalt ingredient 
which in all these cases is mixed with a high-fired, felspathic glaze. 

1 See p. 18. 


44 


K*ANG HSI MONOCHROME PORCELAIN 


Another type of blue glaze is manufactured by a different method, the 
cobalt being sponged or painted on to the body of the ware or sprayed on 
in a dry powder and the glaze added as in the case of the ‘‘ blue and white.” 

Here the blue is not incorporated with the glaze but lies in a distinct layer 
on the body with the depths of the clear glaze above it. The blue so applied 
was occasionally ornamented with designs traced with a needle point which 
removed the particles of blue exposing the white body beneath. Pére 
d’Entrecolles makes allusion to this kind of decoration.!_ He also describes 
in his letter of 1722 the process by which the blue was sprayed on to the 
ware in a dry powder: “as for the soufflé blue called tsowi tsim (ch‘ui 
ch‘ing), the finest blue, prepared in the manner which I have described, 
is used. This is blown on to the vase, and when it is dry the ordinary 
glaze is applied either alone or mixed with tsoui yeou (sui yu), if crackle is 
required.”’ Elsewhere he explains how the Chinese surrounded the ware 
with paper during the blowing process, so as to catch and save any of the 
precious powder which missed its mark. The powder was in fact blown 
through gauze stretched over the end of a bamboo tube. It settled on the 
surface of the ware in a cloud of tiny specks, which formed when fired 
luminous points of blue. The glaze, being a “‘still’’ one, disturbed very 
little the grains of colour which retained their powdery formation. The 
powder-blue thus produced is the most brilliant ofall the blue ground colours, 
and unlike most other coloured glazes it loses little of its brilliancy in artificial 
light. As a monochrome it is a trifle overpowering on large areas, and in 
recognition of this the Chinese almost always broke up the mass of blue 
with traceries of gilding ; but it was more extensively used as a background 
for panel decoration. The panels were masked by paper while the powder 
was blown on, and afterwards they were painted either in underglaze blue 
and red or in famille verte enamels on the finished glaze. The gilt traceries 
were generally added to the blue when it surrounded panels of famille verte 
decoration, but not so often when the panels were decorated in blue and 
white. Silver was occasionally used in place of gold on the powder-blue 
ground, 

The T‘ao lu® speaks of the ch‘ui ch‘ing as one of the specialities of Ts‘ang’s 
directorate, and it certainly does not seem to antedate the K’ang Hsi period. 
White glaze, however, was applied by a similar method of blowing on some 


1 Bushell, op. cit., p. 221. 

2 Sut yu (crackle glaze) is mixed with the various coloured glazes to produce crackle 
(see p. 58) ; but we cannot recall an example of powder-blue crackle. 

3 Julien, p. 107. 


45 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


of the Ming wares, and it is possible that blue glazes may have also been so 
applied. Some of the Chia Ching blue monochromes have a texture which 
suggests treatment of this kind, but in this case the blue is incorporated 
in the glazing material and so has quite a different appearance to that of 
the K‘ang Hsi powder-blue.1_ But once established, the powder-blue 
continued in use. There are good specimens of Yung Chéng date, and 
it is made even at the present day; but the K‘ang Hsi powder-blue, like 
the K‘ang Hsi blue and white, excels all the later makes, and collectors 
esteem it among the most precious of the Chinese wares. There are dark 
and light shades, which appeal to different tastes, but both are admirable 
if the blue is of good quality. 

Powder-blue has many admirers in this country and there are some truly 
remarkable collections of it. Mr. J. B. Joel has several hundreds of pieces 
of all kinds, shapes and sizes, including some of the finest imaginable 
quality and some of unusual size such as a tall yen yen vase, with panels 
of underglaze blue, which must be nearly 30 in. high. One room in the 
Lady Lever Art Gallery contains four large cabinets of powder-blue ; 
and Mr. Leonard Gow has a considerable number of picked specimens, 
some of which may be seen on Plate 20 and on Plate E (édition de luxe), 
A fair idea of the colour and its powdery texture may be obtained from 
these : but it is well-nigh impossible to reproduce the gem-like brilliancy 
of these fine blues and the subtle varieties of their tones, All of these 
examples have panels painted in famille verte enamels in a style worthy of 
the importance of the vases. A rare use of the powder-blue to supplement 
enamelled decoration is seen in Fig. 2 of Plate 53; and in the Lady Lever 
Art Gallery there is a pair of rouleau vases with panels of powder-blue 
set among famille verte designs, reversing the usual procedure. 

Ceramic nomenclature is notoriously perverse and for some unexplained 
reason the term “‘ mazarin blue’’ has attached itself to the powder-blue. 
Cardinal Mazarin died in 1661, and though he doubtless had a weakness 
for blue-glazed porcelain, it can hardly have been for the powder variety. 

There is a cobalt blue among the medium-fired lead-silicate glazes which 
is found on K‘ang Hsi porcelain. It is a dark violet tint and like all the 
lead-silicate glazes it is apt to be covered with a fine and scarcely perceptible 
crackle. The beautiful turquoise-blue is another medium-fired glaze, but 
as it is derived from copper and not cobalt, it belongs to another category. 


1 There are, however, a few specimens of late Ming porcelain on which a rudimentary 
type of powder-blue appears. It is in large and irregular grains which might have been 
dusted on with a sponge. 


46 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROME PORCELAIN 


Manganese which is found in the same mineral formation as the cobalt 
(i.e. cobaltiferous ore of manganese) is the basis of the violet-purple and 
brownish-purple of aubergine glazes and enamels. As glazes these colours 
are medium-fired and used in monochrome or combined with other colours 
such as turquoise, yellow and green. The turquoise and violet-purple 
combination has been a favourite one since the Ming period. The violet- 
purple glaze is thick and somewhat opaque and full of those minute points 
of colour which suggest that it was blown on to the ware. The aubergine 
brown is thinner and more lustrous and transparent: but both are often 
minutely crackled. The cobaltiferous manganese also plays a part in the 
black glazes which belong to the next category. 

Oxide of iron is one of the oldest and most prolific colouring agents used 
by the Chinese, Many clays contain a considerable percentage of iron, and 
these when fired by the potter burn to a reddish or brownish colour and 
even to a black. A little ferruginous clay mixed with the felspathic glaze 
produced the beautiful celadon green glaze in which the Sung potters 
excelled. The same recipe was used from early times at Ching-té Chén, 
and Pére d’Entrecolles! in 1722 alludes to the celadon as still popular: 
*“* I was shown this year for the first time a kind of porcelain which is now 
in fashion ; its colour verges on olive and they call it long tsiven.”’ 

Many beautiful celadon monochromes were made in the K‘ang Hsi, 
Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung periods. Their colour does not greatly 
differ from that of the old Lung-ch‘iian ware, but the glaze is thinner and 
the white porcelain body of Ching-té Chén is readily distinguished from 
the greyish, brown-edged Sung wares ; further, they often have a reign- 
mark in underglaze blue (Plate 50). But the celadon glaze was not used 
as a monochrome only by the Ch‘ing potters. It was often locally applied 
in combination with underglaze red and blue decoration (Plate 31, Fig. 2), 
or with buff and brown glazes. Blue under a celadon glaze has a dull, 
blackish appearance, but the underglaze red, covered by a pale celadon, often 
developed its most attractive tints. Celadon was a favourite with the 18th- 
century French connoisseurs, and many choice specimens are still to be 
found with elaborate ormolu mounts added by the Parisian artists of that 
period. Pére d’Entrecolles adds that crackled celadon was made with the 
usual prescription—the addition of sui yu or crackled glaze; and we are 
all familiar with the vases of greyish-green crackle broken by bands of iron- 


“1 Bushell, op. cit.,p.214. Long tsiven is a rendering of Lung-ch‘iian, the district celebrated 
for celadons in the Sung and Ming periods. In another place D’Entrecolles describes the 
making up of celadons in the Sung style with intent to deceive. 


47 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


coloured brown biscuit and furnished with lion-mask handles and rings. 
They were made with the sui yu, but very few of them are as old as the 
letters of Pére d’Entrecolles. 

There is a host of grey, buff, and brown glazes, mostly crackled, which 
derive their colour from small doses of iron or ferruginous clay. They 
are closely allied to the celadons and, like them, high-fired. The most 
distinctive of these is the large family of lustrous browns, known as tzit 
chin (brown-gold) by the Chinese. These vary from olive-brown and dark 
coffee-brown to the pale golden brown or Nanking yellow, and they are 
sometimes crackled. The tzii chin glaze appears, like the powder-blue, 
both as a monochrome and as a ground for panel decoration, the panels 
being painted either in underglaze blue or enamel colours. This panelled 
brown ware goes by the name of Batavian, because it was largely imported 
by the Dutch who had an entrepét at Batavia in Java. The panel decora- 
tion is often in famille rose colours of the transition period. Sometimes, 
too, the brown is used on the exterior of bowls and cups which have blue 
and white or enamelled designs inside ; and in a few cases a brown ground 
is decorated in silver, a process which is incorrectly stated to have been new 
in the Yung Chéng period. Existing specimens hardly do justice to the 
silvered decoration, as the metal turns black in course of time. 

The paler shades of the lustrous brown glaze are often laid over designs 
engraved in the paste, and we have already noted that the Nanking yellow 
was used occasionally as a ground for famille verte decoration. Occasionally, 
too, these glazes are variegated as on two rare vases in the Peters Collection 
in New York, of which one has a coffee-brown glaze shading into olive- 
brown mottled with black and the other an olive-brown glaze with large 
patches of dark coffee-brown. 

The wu chin (black-gold) glaze is an offshoot of the same family. It is 
formed by mixing a little cobaltiferous ore of manganese with the coffee- 
brown. It is a hard, high-fired glaze with a lustrous black surface showing 
bluish or brownish reflexions and it is universally known as mirror black 
(Plate 24). Though distantly related to the thick lustrous brown-black 
glazes of the Chien and other Sung wares, the actual mirror black seems 
to have been a K‘ang Hsi innovation. Pére d’Entrecolles says that it was 
only perfected after many failures and he is probably correct in the dating 
of this glaze, though he is apt to claim recent invention for many processes 


1.See p. 72. It may have been first used at the Imperial factory in this reign; but it 
certainly appears on other wares in the K‘ang Hsi period, for Pére d’Entrecolles describes 
it in one of his letters. 


48 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROME PORCELAIN 


which we now know to have been in use in the Ming dynasty. The coffee- 
brown, tzii chin, glaze is a case in point. 

Scherzer’s valuable note (see p. xxv) discloses part of the secret of the 
Chinese success with these high-fired monochromes. The dark blue, the 
celadon, the lustrous brown, and the mirror-black glazes were applied in 
numerous coatings. In some cases as many as nine different coats of colour 
were given to secure the requisite density and smoothness, six by blowing 
and three by painting with a brush. 

Choice specimens of the beautiful mirror black with soft brownish 
reflexions are rare and costly. Like the powder-blue it was usually relieved 
by gilt traceries, but the gilding in all such cases was apt to wear off in 
time leaving behind nothing but faint oily lines which are only visible 
when the piece is held obliquely to the light. It is a common occurrence 
to find that the gilding on both powder-blue and mirror black has been 
retouched in modern times. Another variety of the mirror black is a thick 
lacquer-like glaze, softer looking and less lustrous and usually showing 
signs of faint crackle. This is of later date and probably not earlier than 
Ch‘ien Lung. 

-Pére d’Entrecolles mentions the use of a mirror black to decorate panels 
reserved in a brown glaze. We cannot recall any specimen of this type, 
but there is a triple gourd vase in the Lady Lever Art Gallery which 
has one bulb glazed with mirror black and another decorated with famille 
verte enamels on a white glaze, and there are rare examples in which panels 
of enamelled decoration are reserved in a mirror-black ground. 

Another colour in which iron plays a part is yellow. The Nanking yellow, 
of which we have spoken already, is a pale variety of the high-fired tzii chin 
glaze and it would generally be regarded as a golden-brown rather than 
a yellow, though there are cases in which it approaches the latter colour 
more nearly. But the typical monochrome yellow of this period is one 
of the medium-fired lead-silicate glazes, which with aubergine and leaf 
green make up the san ts‘ai or three colours proper. All these are used as 
monochromes on Imperial porcelains, but a full yolk-of-egg yellow is more 
especially the Imperial colour. When applied direct to the biscuit the 
yellow glaze has a darker and browner tone : when applied over the white 
glaze it is paler and clearer. Engraved designs are often used under the 
yellow as under the aubergine and green glazes; and on the Imperial 
pieces they generally consist of five-clawed dragons pursuing pearls. The 
T‘ao lu mentions two types of yellow as specialities of the régime of Ts’ang 
Ying-hsiian. One, the shan yii huang (eel yellow), is probably the brownish- 


49 E 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


yellow glaze applied to the biscuit; the other, huang pan tien (spotted yellow), 
is more intriguing. Bushell has identified it with the mottled green, yellow 
and aubergine which is variously known as “‘ tiger skin ’’ and “ egg and 
spinach,”’ and this motley was in fact used on Imperial porcelains, such 
as the dish in the Salting Collection on which it covers engraved Imperial 
dragons,!_ Brinkley, on the other hand, describes it as a ‘‘ stoneware with 
olive-green and yellow speckles ’’ : it must be confessed that the expression 
is sufficiently vague to cover a variety of mottled glazes in which yellow 
plays a part, such, for instance, as a rare vase in the Peters Collection 
(New York), which has a minutely crackled brownish-yellow glaze clouded 
with dark olive in markings like those of a tortoiseshell, or a small covered 
pot in the Franks Collection with brownish yellow mottled with black. 

There are many shades of yellow enamels which were used as enamel 
glazes, such as primrose, canary, lemon, and mustard yellow. Pére 
d’Entrecolles describes the composition of the yellow enamel as iron 
mixed with the fluxing material ; but we know that antimony is the basis 
of many yellow enamels and it is possible that the Chinese employed this 
medium as well as iron. But except for the pale transparent yellow of 
the famille verte palette, the yellow enamels mostly belong to the post- 
K‘ang Hsi periods. Specimens with crackled mustard yellow are some- 
times claimed as K‘ang Hsi, but it is doubtful if the claim can be sustained. 
This particular type of glaze is formed, like the ‘“ apple-green”’ and 
camellia-leaf green crackles, by a wash of enamel over a crackled stone- 
coloured glaze; and in some cases the yellow has a distinctly greenish 
tint. 

Finally oxide of iron is the basis of the fan hung, or iron-red, which 
figures so largely in the famille verte enamel decoration. This is the thin 
coral red usually applied without fluxing material. It is made to adhere 
to the porcelain before firing by means of ox glue, and it borrows what 
little gloss it has after firing from the silica in the glaze. It is used as 
a ground colour on K‘ang Hsi porcelain, but nearly always with reserved 
scrollwork in white or colours (Plate 19). The coral red monochromes 
are mostly, if not all, later than K‘ang Hsi; and there are many later 
varieties of enamel glazes in which the iron-red was more or less heavily 
fluxed, but these will be discussed in another chapter. 


1 In this case huang pan tien would appear to be only a variant for the huang li tien 
(green and yellow spotted) glaze described by D’Entrecolles (p. 60) and mentioned among 
the three ‘ glazes of the Imperial factory ” in the Yung Chéng list (p. 66). 


50 


CHAPTER VI 


K*‘ANG HSI MONOCHROMES (contd.) 
AND COLOURED GLAZES 


Oxide of copper is another prolific colouring agent. Under varying 
conditions of firing it produces reds of cherry, peach, and maroon tints ; 
variegated or flambé effects in which the red is splashed and mottled with 
purple and grey; turquoise; and a long series of green enamels. The 
most interesting of these colours are the various reds, which are developed 
from copper oxide mixed with a felspathic glaze in the full heat of the 
porcelain kiln; and the most typical K’ang Hsi red of this class is the 
lang yao. 

It may be recalled that the Hsiian Té period of the Ming dynasty was 
noted for a brilliant copper red variously known as chi hung (sacrificial 
red) and pao shih hung (precious stone red), the latter because of the story 
(half myth and half fact) that powdered rubies, or some other precious 
stones, were mixed with the glaze. The mastery of this colour was 
difficult to retain and it was apparently lost in the 16th century and only 
fully recovered in the K‘ang Hsi period, by a potter of the name of Lang, 
who gave his name to the lang yao or Lang’s ware. The nomenclature 
lang yao does not occur in the standard Chinese works on the Ching-té 
Chén porcelain. It is based on oral tradition only ; and there is no good 
reason for connecting it with Lang T‘ing-tso, governor of Kiangsi (1654-56) 
and Viceroy of Kiangsi and Kiangnan (1656-61, and 1665-68), and still 
less with Lang Shih-ning, as the Chinese called the Jesuit frére Castiglione. 
The former is absurdly improbable,! and the latter impossible because 
he did not arrive in China till 1715. Persons of the name of Lang are 
known to have resided in the district? and we have only to imagine that 
one of the family was the potter who revived the celebrated Ming red. 

It is more profitable to turn to the letters of Pére d’Entrecolles, who 
alludes to the celebrated red in 1712 and gives a really admirable account 
of it in his second letter of 1722: ‘* This red in the glaze (yu li hung)® 
is made with granulated red copper and the powder of a certain stone 


1 It is not necessary to recapitulate the reasons for this statement which are set out in 
C.P-Po Vol. II, p. 221. 

2 See P. Pelliot, Notes sur l’Histoire de la Céramique Chinoise, T‘oung Pao, 2e Série, Vol. 
XXII, 1923, p. 54. 

3 Scherzer (op. cit.) uses the term yu li hung for underglaze painted red as distinct from 
the red sang-de-beuf glaze which he calls chi hung. It is probable that Pére d’Entrecolles 
has confused the two terms. 


51 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


or pebble of a reddish colour. A Christian doctor told me that this stone 
was a kind of alum, used in medicine. The whole is pounded in a mortar 
and mixed with a youth’s urine and the ordinary porcelain glaze; but 
I have not been able to ascertain the quantities of the ingredients, for 
those in possession of the secret take good care not to divulge it. This 
mixture is applied to the porcelain before it is fired and no other glaze 
is used ; but care has to be taken that the red does not run to the bottom 
of the vase during the firing. They tell me that when they intend to 
apply this red to porcelain they do not use china stone (petuntse), but 
they use instead of it, mixed with the china clay (kaolin), a yellow clay 
prepared in the same manner as the petuntse. Probably it is a kind of 
clay specially suited to receive this colour.” 

The Chinese accounts of the Ming underglaze red all allude to the 
“red precious stone ’’ as an ingredient of the glaze. Probably it was 
cornaline (ma nao),1 and, though it can have had no possible effect on 
the red colour which is solely due to reduced copper oxide, it may well 
have added brilliancy to the glaze. The yellow clay is probably the same 
as the “‘ earth used for the underglaze red,’’ the lack of which we are told 
severely handicapped the Imperial potters in the Chia Ching period of 
the Ming dynasty. This was doubtless a ferruginous clay, the iron of 
which could act as a reducing agent on the copper; and as the under glaze 
red is copper-oxide fired in a reducing atmosphere, such an ingredient 
would undoubtedly be helpful.? 

The appearance of the typical lang yao is best described by reference 
to a good specimen. Imagine a bottle-shaped vase with straight neck 
and rounded body covered with lang yao glaze. The colour is an intense 
red, which tends to flow downwards with the glaze, so that the top of the 
neck is perhaps left almost white, while below this the red deepens, massing 
on the shoulders to the density of ox blood (sang-de-beuf); on the sides it 
thins out again into a vivid cherry red, thickening again at the base, where 
it stops in a clear even line. A close observation will show that the red 
forms in innumerable small points and is dragged down by the flow 
of the glaze: that the colour is deposited on the surface of the ware and 
does not permeate the glaze itself and that the glaze is full of bubbles 
and is faintly crackled. There is no red under the base, but here the 
glaze is sometimes a faint greenish or buff crackle. Mr. Schiller’s 


1 Also stated to have been used in the glaze of the famous Ju yao of the Sung dynasty. 
2 The technique of the copper-red is ably discussed by Prof. Norman Collie in the 
Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society, 1921-22, p. 22. 


52 


K*‘ANG HSI MONOCHROMES 


beautiful little vase (Plate 21) with cherry-red lang yao glaze will serve 
to illustrate these characteristics. 

The secret of the true lang yao was certainly kept very closely and it 
seems to have been lost again at the end of the K‘ang Hsi period.’ It 
doubtless lay in the composition of the glaze, which was harder and 
more sluggish than that afterwards used. But the fact remains that the 
potters of later reigns have never succeeded in completely controlling 
the flow of the glaze nor in producing a perfect red. On the later wares 
the red is almost always broken by streaks of grey or purple, which are 
absent from the lang yao, and the glaze runs down over the base and has 
to be ground off. It is not improbable that the secret may be again 
recovered. Indeed, the best imitations of the lang yao are the most 
recent, and in some of them the red is admirable, though the overflow 
of the glaze has not quite been controlled. 

Another and rather less rare kind of lang yao has a red of crushed 
strawberry tint and a very bubbly glaze full of pin-holes and of a thickly 
stippled appearance. It is commonly seen in the form of bowls with 
gracefully shaped sides and outward spreading rims; and in almost 
every case it will be found that the glaze beneath the base is a crackled 
watery green. This green, sometimes called lang yao celadon, in a few 
cases covers the whole surface: the red having disappeared, perhaps 
owing to too rapid cooling of the ware.2. A bowl in the British Museum, 
which has been affected in this way, has been furbished up with famille . 
verte enamel decoration. 

The copper-red was always a difficult colour to manage and the K’‘ang 
Hsi potters were by no means exempt from failures, though some of the 
partial failures are in themselves not unattractive. There is, for instance, 
a rare colour known by the poetical name of “ ashes of roses.” The 


1 Attempts to make the lang yao evidently did not cease with the K‘ang Hsi period. 
Scherzer (op. cit.), writing in 1882, tells us: ‘‘ The copper-red (chi hung or sang-de-beuf) 
has not been made since the death of the last owner of the secret of its manufacture. Twenty 
years ago the management of the Imperial factory excused themselves in a memorial to the 
throne for their inability to execute an order for vases with chi hung glaze.’’ It is of course 
possible that the last owner of the secret was one of the Lang family and that his death 
took place a hundred and fifty years before the date of this occurrence ; but we know of 
inferior sang-de-beuf porcelains which are evidently the results of later efforts to make the 
chi hung glaze. See also the T‘ung Chih list, p. gt. 

2 See Prof. Collie, loc. cit. The term lang yao has been misapplied by some writers to 
the ‘‘ apple-green ” crackle, a green enamel over a grey crackled glaze; but it should be 
realised that the only lang yao green is the accidental effect here described. 


33 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


glaze in this case is faintly crackled like the sang-de-beuf and lightly 
tinged with copper-red which verges on maroon. In other cases the 
accidental formation of an oxidising atmosphere in the kiln would cause 
the copper-red to break out into streaks of purple, blue and grey. These 
were called by the Chinese yao pien, or furnace transmutation effects, and 
the pieces so affected were regarded by the K‘ang Hsi potters as failures 
and doubtless scrapped as such. In a later reign the potters learnt to 
produce these variegated glazes at will and to take pride in their mastery of 
them. Pére d’Entrecolles was shown a failure of this kind and he tells us 
that the potter had been trying to make a soufflé red glaze. The expression 
rouge souffié in other contexts has caused some misapprehension and it has 
been taken to refer to an iron-red monochrome of powdery texture which 
belongs to a later period. But the present passage makes it clear that 
D’Entrecolles was writing of the copper-red glaze, which evidently was, 
in some cases at any rate, blown (soufflé) on to the ware through gauze 
stretched over the end of a bamboo tube, a process which might help 
to explain the stippled texture of the red noticed above. 

The use of the copper-red for underglaze painting has been described 
in the chapter on blue and white (p. 21). 

Another much prized red derived from copper is the “‘ peach-bloom,” 
to which the Chinese give a variety of names: p‘in kuo hung (apple-red), 
pin kuo ch‘ing (apple-green), and chiang tou hung (bean-red), the last in 
allusion to the small Chinese kidney bean which has a variegated pink 
skin with brown spots. 

As will be inferred from these names the “‘ peach-bloom”’ is not a 
uniform red colour. It is, in fact, a pinkish-red shading into liver colour 
or maroon and broken by patches of olive-green and spots of russet brown. 
The green sometimes extends over large areas; and the glaze is some- 
times thick and crackled and fluid enough to run down in drops on the 
sides of a vessel. Figure 2 of Plate 23 shows the characteristics of a 
good specimen of peach-bloom with a large area of the apple-green colour, 
russet spots, and a framework of peach-red. It has been proved to be 
possible to produce a peach-bloom colour by means of chrome tin,! 
but we have no evidence that the Chinese were aware of this medium; 
and we shall probably be right in assuming that they got their results 
from oxide of copper fired under conditions which they learnt by their 
usual empirical methods. 

The peach-bloom colour is usually seen on small articles, such as the 

1 See C.P.P., Vol. II, p. 177, 


34 


4 %, 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROMES 


water-pots, brush washers (Plate 23) and vermilion boxes used on the 
writing-table, or on small vases, and there are certain shapes specially 
associated with this glaze. One of these is the beehive shaped water-pot, 
which is also known as the t‘ai-po tsun,! because its shape resembled that 
of the wine-pot on which the drunken poet, Li T‘ai po, supported himself 
in a well-known picture. Another is the elegant bottle, with bulb carved 
with a band of chrysanthemum petals (cf. Plate 49); and another is a 
slender, tapering vase with spreading mouth and a base so small that 
it is unsafe without a deep wooden stand to hold it up. In America this 
last is usually described as of amphora shape; and it is in fact formed 
like the body of a slender Greek amphora, but without the distinctive 
pair of handles. The base of the peach-bloom pieces is glazed white 
and is always marked in underglaze blue with the date-mark of K‘ang 
Hsi, written in a careful but rather mannered style. But, needless to say, 
all is not K‘ang Hsi which is so marked ; and there are many good modern 
imitations of the peach-bloom glaze to trap the unwary, and we have 
seen several of the ‘“ amphora’” vases which belong to this category. 
The colour in these is sometimes very good, but the paste, glaze and 
potting have not the finish of the fine K‘ang Hsi pieces. 

We have already noted that the red used in underglaze painted decoration, 
especially where the colour is in patches, is sometimes thick and bubbly 
and with a distinct peach-bloom tint. This appears to be an intentional 
effect and implies the use of special mixture. 

The sang-de-beufs and peach-blooms do not exhaust the reds obtained 
from copper oxide. There are maroon or liver-coloured glazes which 
differ in texture from both, though they sometimes approach the peach- 
bloom in their finer shades of colour. Liver colour is a description which 
does not do justice to the more successful of these glazes. There are, 
for instance, shapely wine cups with a translucent crimson glaze of great 
beauty, which belong to this class, and bottle-shaped vases which almost 
rival the lang yao in depth of colour. But the technique of this crimson-red 
is different from that of the lang yao and the peach-bloom. The colour 
seems to be much more controlled, and where it shades off a clear white 
glaze appears; and though it is sometimes thick and bubbly it is rarely, 
if ever, crackled. But there are no redeeming features in this kind of 
glaze, if it misses success; the failures are brownish maroon or dull liver 
colour, both unpleasant to look upon. 

Among the medium-fired glazes both the turquoise and the leaf green 

1 Cf, Plate 72, Fig. 4. 


55 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


owe their colour to copper. The former is a singularly beautiful glaze 
and always much admired, though perhaps never so fashionable as it 
is in Paris to-day. It varies widely in tint and in quality, ranging from 
a lovely turquoise-blue to deep turquoise-green, and sometimes partaking 
of both shades; and among the Chinese it has various names: fei ts‘ui 
(kingfisher blue), chi ts‘ui and k‘ung ch‘iao lu (peacock green). It is almost 
always minutely crackled, but the crackle is much more in evidence on 
the greener shades of the colour. 

It is not always easy to give a date to the turquoise wares. The colour 
has been widely used from Ming times to the present day, and we have 
to base our judgment on shape and style of potting. Needless to say, 
much of the K‘ang Hsi turquoise is extremely fine in colour. It is usually 
quite plain, but occasionally engraved designs are seen under the glaze. 
It would appear that a mixture of a coarse (and probably ferruginous) 
clay! in the body helped to develop the turquoise colour. The base 
of many turquoise vases betrays the presence of this by roughness and 
redness of the edges; but this mixture does not seem to have been used 
on the K‘ang Hsi wares, which have a fine-grained white body. 

According to the T‘ao lu the three outstanding glazes of the Imperial 
factory under Ts‘ang’s management were snake-skin green, spotted yellow, 
and the chi ts‘ui, which is doubtless turquoise. Ts‘ui is the colour of the 
kingfisher’s feathers and is used to describe a turquoise-blue, but the 
exact force of the character chi (lucky) is not easy to explain, and one 
suspects a variant reading for the more ordinary phrase fei ts‘ui which 
is current for the turquoise colour. 

Plate 22 illustrates a lovely little bottle with the greenish-turquoise 
(ts‘ui) glaze on a white porcelain body, worthy of the Imperial factory 
under Ts‘ang himself; and with it is a bowl with brilliant peacock-blue 
glaze covering an engraved design of Imperial five-clawed dragons and 
rock and wave border. The latter has the K‘ang Hsi mark under the 
base. 

The numerous shades of green in the medium-fired lead-silicate glazes 
and the enamels of the muffle kiln are due to copper. The most familiar 
is the transparent leaf green, which is sometimes used as a monochrome 
with or without incised or moulded decoration beneath it. It occurs 
more frequently in the san ts‘ai (three colour) decoration combined with 
yellow and aubergine. The cucumber green (kua p‘i li) is more dis- 

1 Scherzer (op. cit.) tells us that such a special biscuit was used in his time (1882) for 
both the flambé red and turquoise glazes. 


56 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROMES 


tinguished, a yellowish leaf green mottled with darker tints; and there 
is the snake-skin green (shé p‘i lui), a very iridescent but transparent green, 
which is named in the T‘ao lu as one of the four most beautiful glazes 
made under Ts‘ang’s directorate. This last is described apart from 
the ordinary monochrome green, which, however, comes in for its meed 
of praise. 

There are green enamels used as monochromes, singly and in composite 
form. Thus the well-known glaze, which is not very aptly described 
as “‘ apple-green,”” is formed by coating a stone-coloured grey crackle 
with a transparent emerald-green enamel (Plate 23). The resultant 
colour is singularly beautiful and, being highly valued, it is much imitated. 
The process of its manufacture is so simple that the imitations are apt 
to be distressingly good, especially when the imitator has selected an 
old crackle vase as a foundation for his work. They are, however, often 
betrayed by the care taken to dull the fresh lustre of the new enamel, 
which will show signs of artificial wear and friction, Many good specimens 
of the green crackle were made in the Ch‘ien Lung period. These will 
be recognised by the characteristic finish of the base,’ and it will be 
noticed that the enamel in these pieces commonly covers the raw edge 
of the base rim, giving ita brown appearance. The emerald-green enamel 
is lustrous and rather iridescent, and where it has been broken up by the 
crackle it often forms in lustrous flakes like the wings of a fly. These 
ailes de mouches are held by some collectors to be signs of age and 
genuineness; but alas! this simple criterion cannot be trusted: they 
form on perfectly modern glazes as well. 

There are other shades of the composite green crackle besides the 
brilliant emerald, and it sometimes assumes quite a dark cucumber tone. 
And, again, there are composite green crackles formed in a similar fashion 
but with semi-opaque enamel in a variety of tints—camellia-leaf, myrtle, 
spinach and sage. But it is doubtful if any of this last group are older 
than the Yung Chéng period. Further, much the same kind of semi- 
opaque green glaze, with a satiny sheen, has been used on a pottery base, 
notably at Kashan in Kiangsu. 

Frequent mention has been made of “ crackle ’’ and an explanation 
of this phenomenon is overdue. The appearance of a crackled glaze is 
aptly described by Pére d’Entrecolles as a surface “ marbled all over 
and split up in every direction into an infinite number of veins. At a 
distance it might be taken for broken porcelain, all the fragments of which 

1 i.e. wedge-shaped instead of straight-sided. 


97 


? 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


have remained in place. It is like mosaic work.’’ Doubtless the crackle 
was at first an accidental effect, but the Chinese immediately saw the 
value of it and as early as the Sung dynasty they learnt how to produce 
it at will. 

All pottery shrinks in the kiln, and to ensure an even surface it is necessary 
that the body and the glaze should contract to the same extent. If the 
glaze contracts more than the body it will split up into a network of 
cracks: and the Chinese had to find out how this could be done without 
ruining the porcelain. In the end they discovered several methods. 
One was to heat the ware as much as possible in the sun whilst it was 
drying and then plunge it into pure water. A crackle was produced by 
this means after the firing. But the more usual method in the K‘ang Hsi 
period is that described by Pére d’Entrecolles, namely, to mix sui yu (crackle 
glaze) with the ordinary glaze. The sui yu was composed of “‘ pebbles,” 
or, as we learn from the T‘ao lu, the rock of San-pao-p‘éng.!_ The colour 
of the sui yu when used alone was greyish white or ashen, but when mixed 
with coloured glazes, such as lavender, brown, blue, etc., it had little 
effect on their actual colours. It is quite clear that the Chinese could 
regulate the size of the crackle to a great extent, for we sometimes see 
bands of different sized crackles on the same piece. They also emphasised 
the crackle lines by rubbing in red ochre, ink, or a decoction of tea leaves 
while the ware was still warm and the cracks not completely closed. In 
some cases this stain will be seen to have penetrated beyond the cracks 
and given the glaze a clouded appearance. This is specially noticeable 
on the drab and buff crackles, which are the commonest types. We have 
already noticed that the grey crackles are the foundation of several 
composite glazes, such as the “‘ apple-green’’: and that the buff or 
“‘ oatmeal ”’ crackles are sometimes combined with underglaze blue and 
even with enamelled decoration. When the blue painting is used in these 
cases, it is generally laid on pads of white slip locally applied. Specimens 
of this buff and blue are not uncommon, but most of them are consider- 
ably later than the K‘ang Hsi period, and the modern specimens will be 
found to be dull and heavy and to emit no ringing note on percussion. 

Plate 23 illustrates the effect of a bold crackle : the finer crackle is termed 


1 Scherzer (op. cit.) obtained samples of the rock from San-pao-p‘éng in 1882, and the 
analysis of it made by Vogt proves that though unctuous to the touch it is not, as has been 
supposed, a steatite. It contains no magnesium, and under tests it behaves like a pegmatite. 
Scherzer also informs us that the crackle glaze was blown on to the porcelain and that two 
layers were applied to produce the finer (truité) crackle and four to produce the large crackle 


58 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROMES 


by the French truité. The intentional crackle is quite distinct from the 
accidental crazing or faint crackling which develops on most of the medium- 
fired glazes, such as aubergine and turquoise. 

Coloured glazes are used on other types of porcelain besides the mono- 
chromes. Even the high-fired glazes, such as blue, celadon-green, copper- 
red and brown are sometimes combined on parti-coloured wares, 
especially on certain small figures and ornaments. These little objects 
usually have a very modern appearance, but a series of them in the 
Dresden Collection shows that they were certainly made in the K‘ang 
Hsi period. Prof. Zimmermann surmises that some provincial factory 
was responsible for them. 

The celebrated san ts‘ai, or three-colour ware of the Ming dynasty, 
was decorated with combinations of the medium-fired glazes—egreen, 
aubergine, yellow, turquoise, and purplish blue—and several of the Ming 
types still survived. The turquoise and aubergine are often seen together 
on the peach-shaped wine-pots. Bowls and dishes have engraved designs 
filled in with aubergine, green or yellow glazes in a ground of contrasting 
colour. The well-known type of “ brinjal ’’ bowl has a spray of flowers 
engraved and washed in with green, white or yellow in an aubergine 
(brinjal) ground, or, again, the same design is set in a ground of green. 
Most of these bowls are marked with an indeterminate seal mark in 
blue, which is commonly called a “shop mark’”’;! and though some 
of them may be a little earlier than K‘ang Hsi they generally belong 
to that period. Again there are the neat Imperial rice-bowls and dishes 
with engraved five-clawed dragons, yellow in a green ground, or green 
in aubergine, or aubergine in yellow. An unusual specimen of this kind 
is a bowl in the Dresden Collection which has dragons coloured a very 
dark aubergine, almost black, in a yellow ground. But it must not be 
assumed that all the rice-bowls of this class with a K‘ang Hsi mark belong 
to the period indicated. There are many of them which have a finish 
of distinctly Ch‘ien Lung appearance; and it is certain that the type 
was a very enduring one. 

In a very much larger and more mixed company of porcelains, the same 
glazes are applied without any regard to underlying designs. They are 
either splashed on in large washes or in a motley of patches, or, again, 
in tortoise-shell formation. The motley of green, yellow, aubergine and 
white is variously known as “ tiger skin” or “ leopard skin” or “ egg 
and spinach.” This patchwork of glazes is occasionally seen on the finer 

1 See p. 143, 


59 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


dishes, such as those made for palace use, but as a rule it appears on a 
somewhat coarser quality of porcelain which figured largely in the export 
trade. Pére d’Entrecolles has an interesting passage’ describing this 
group: ‘‘ There is a kind of coloured porcelain which is sold at a lower 
rate than the enamelled ware just described (i.e. the famille verte). ... 
The material required for this work need not be so fine. Vessels which 
have already been baked in the great furnace without glaze, and con- 
sequently white and lustreless, are coloured by immersion in a bowl 
filled with the colouring preparation if they are intended to be monochrome. 
But if they are required to be polychrome like the objects called huang 
li huan? (yellow and green circles), which are divided into kinds of panels, 
one green, one yellow, etc., the colours are laid on with a large brush. 
This is all that need be done to this type of porcelain, except that after 
the firing a little vermilion is applied to certain parts, such as the beaks 
of birds, etc. This vermilion, however, is not fired, as it would evaporate 
in the kiln, and consequently it does not last. When the various colours 
have been applied, the porcelain is refired in the great furnace with the 
other wares which have not yet been baked; but care is taken to place 
it at the bottom of the furnace and below the vent-hole where the fire is 
less fierce; otherwise the great heat would destroy the colours.” We 
recognise at once in this description the amusing little figures of animals, 
birds, human beings and deities, and the ornaments in form of shrines, 
boats, rocks, and grottos with parti-coloured glaze, in which green and 
aubergine bulk largely. We have noted, too, the traces of red pigment 
on the unglazed bases and the flesh parts of the figures. 

A similar type of ware was undoubtedly made in the Ming period, but 
Ming specimens are extremely rare and the authenticated ones* show 
very marked characteristics of their own. It will then be safe to assume, 
in the absence of some very definite evidence to the contrary, that in this 
class of ware we are dealing with productions of the K‘ang Hsi and later 
periods, for d’Entrecolles’ letter was written in the last year of that reign. 
Further, the Dresden Collection, which was in the main collected between 
1694 and 1705, is very rich in this kind of porcelain. D’Entrecolles’ 
opinion of this ware is unnecessarily low, for, granted that much of it 
is of rather summary execution, there are many well-modelled ornaments 
for the writing-table, etc., which are glazed in this fashion; and some 


1 Section XIV of the 1722 letter. See Bushell, op. cit. 
2 Cf. huang lii tien of the Yung Chéng list (p. 66) and huang pan tien (p. 50). 
3 See Wares of the Ming Dynasty, p. 147. 


60 


K‘ANG HSI MONOCHROMES 


of the figures of deities and birds are finely potted and finished and covered 
with beautiful, sleek glazes which are most attractive. 

The glazes used in this group are the softer lead-silicates, smooth, 
translucent, and to-day slightly iridescent from age. They are apt to 
be confused with the enamels of the muffle kiln which were also used 
in washes on the biscuit body (see p. 24); but the latter, in spite of a 
superficial similarity, are in reality much more fusible and soft, containing 
more lead ; and there are certain palpable differences in colour between 
the two. The yellow glaze is fuller and browner in colour than the 
corresponding enamel: the aubergine glaze has more of a claret tint, 
whereas the aubergine enamel is pinker : and the green enamels are more 
varied and include a beautiful pale apple-green which does not appear 
among the glazes. 

The glazes are composed of powdered flint, lead, and saltpetre, tinted 
with the colouring oxides described on page 23 ; and the three chief 
colours—green, yellow, and aubergine—are supplemented by a composite 
black (formed by a wash of transparent glaze over a dull brown-black 
pigment) and a rather impure white, composed, according to Pére 
d’Entrecolles, of powdered flint and white lead. 

A few examples of this class of porcelain are shown on Plate 54. The 
dignified figure of Chung-li Ch‘itian, one of the Eight Immortals, is 
glazed with a full yellow on the robes and aubergine on the base; and 
the curious incense-burner, which follows the design of a Han bronze, 
has a green-glazed body and a yellow head with details in aubergine. 
The third figure represents the demon god of Literature (see p. 124), 
K‘uei Hsing, standing on the head of a fish-dragon. The rock behind 
him is hollow and seems to have been adapted for burning incense: it 
is coloured with a motley of green, yellow, aubergine and white of the 
“tiger skin ’’ type. The flesh parts of the grotesquely ugly figure are 
coloured aubergine; the draperies, the dragon and the plinth are yellow. 
All the glazes are remarkably brilliant and over the fine-grained biscuit 
they have the lustre of polished jade. Other specimens with coloured 
glazes are the beautiful magnolia-shaped water-dropper on Plate 48, 
which has greenish white petals and an aubergine stalk ; and the water- 
dropper in form of a duck and lotus leaf on Plate 72, of which the cup 
is yellow outside and green within and the duck has the “ tiger skin ”’ 
mottling. 


61 


CHAPTER VII 


THE YUNG CHENG PORCELAIN 
(1723555) 


The Manchu rule was worthily upheld by the fourth son of K‘ang Hsi, 
who succeeded to the throne, in his forty-sixth year, under the name of 
Yung Chéng. A firm and just sovereign, he did not shrink from inflicting 
the supreme penalty on his own brothers when their seditious conduct 
imperilled the welfare of the State. But that unhappy incident has no 
bearing on our subject. The new Emperor had shown an interest in 
the manufacture of porcelain while heir apparent, but it was of a kind 
which probably was not greatly appreciated by the potters. Pére d’Entre- 
colles tells us that he ordered ‘‘a great lamp to be made in one piece, 
through which a torch gave light to a whole room,” besides a number 
of musical instruments, some of which proved impossible to manufacture. 
These tests of skill when enforced by royal command usually meant 
hardship for the potters. However, this was some eighteen years before 
Yung Chéng succeeded to the throne, and any disservice done by such 
orders was more than counterbalanced by two wise appointments made 
during his reign. About the year 17231 he placed the direction of the 
Imperial factory in the hands of Nien Hsi-yao, who as inspector of customs 
at Huai-an Fu controlled the funds for the Imperial porcelain; and in 
1728 he ordered his brother, the Prince of Yi, to announce personally 
to the celebrated T‘ang Ying his appointment as assistant director of the 
Imperial factory. 

The ware made under Nien’s directorship is described under the heading 
of Wien yao in the T‘ao lu, and we are told that Nien’s duty was to select 
the materials and see to the completion of Imperial orders. The coloured 
porcelain was sent twice monthly to Nien at the Customs and forwarded 
by him to the Emperor. The ware is described as extremely refined and 
elegant, ‘“‘Among the vases many were of egg colour and of rounded 
form, lustrous and pure white, like silver. Others had blue and coloured 
decoration combined, and some had painted, engraved, etched or pierced 
designs all ingeniously fashioned. Imitations of the antique and invention 
of novelties, these were truly the established principles of Nien.” 

We are left to infer that Nien took a more intimate interest in the manu- 
facture than would be possible from his seat at the Customs in Huai-an 

1 Bushell implies that Nien’s appointment was not made till 1726, but the T‘ao lu puts it 
at the beginning of the reign. 


62 


YUNG CHENG PORCELAIN 


Fu ; and we know at any rate that from 1728 onwards he had the invaluable 
help of T‘ang Ying, who made a personal study of all the processes in 
use. 

But a much more illuminating account of the Imperial Yung Chéng 
wares can be gathered from the list of decorations used at the Imperial 
factory which was compiled by Hsieh Min, governor of Kiangsi from 
1729 to 1734.' It is quoted in full below, with the commentator’s notes 
in inverted commas ; and it will be seen that much attention was indeed 
given to ‘imitation of the antique.’ In fact, we are told that many 
of the imitations were made from ancient specimens expressly sent from 
the Palace collections for the purpose. 


(1) Glazes of the Ta Kuan period on an “ iron ” body, including moon 
white (ytieh pai), pale blue or green (fén ch‘ing) and deep green 
(ta li). 

(2) Ko glaze on an “ iron” body, including millet colour (mi sé) and 
fén ch‘ing. 

(3) Ju glaze without crackle on a “ copper’ body: the glaze colours 
copied from a cat’s food basin of the Sung dynasty, and a dish for 
washing brushes moulded with a human face. 

(4) Ju glaze with fish-roe crackle on a “ copper ”’ body. 

(5) White Ting glaze. Only the fén Ting was copied, and not the 
t‘u Ting. 

(6) Chiin glazes. Nine varieties are given, of which five were copied 
from old palace pieces and four from newly acquired specimens. 

(7) Reproductions of the chi hung red of the Hsiian Té period: in- 
cluding the fresh red (Asien hung) and the ruby red (pao shih hung). 

(8) Reproductions of the deep violet-blue (chi ch‘ing) of the Hsitan Té 
period. This glaze is deep and reddish, and has orange-peel marks 
and palm eyes. 

(9) Reproductions of the glazes of the Imperial factory: including 
eel yellow, snake-skin green and spotted yellow.’ 

(10) Lung-ch‘iian glazes: including pale and dark shades. 

(11) Tung-ch‘ing glazes: including pale and dark shades. 

1 Published in the Chiang hsi t‘ung chih, bk. 93, fols. 11-13, and translated by Bushell 
in his Oriental Ceramic Art, pp. 368-90. Bushell’s rendering has been followed in the 
main in the above version. 

2 See p.50. These are K‘ang Hsi glazes. For explanations of the Sung and Ming types 
the reader is referred to the two previous volumes of this series. The Sung types are those 
mentioned in items 1-6, 10-14, and 18; the Ming in items 7, 8, 15-17, 19, 24-27, 41-43. 


63 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


(12) Reproductions of the Sung millet-coloured (mi sé) glaze: copied 
in form and colour from fragments dug up at Hsiang Hu. 

(13) Sung pale green (fén ch‘ing) : copied from wares found at the same 
time as the last. 

(14) Reproductions of “ oil green” (yu Iu) glaze: ‘ copied from an 
old transmutation (yao pien) ware like green jade (pi yu) with 
brilliant colour broken by variegated passages and of antique 
elegance.” 

(15) The Chiin glaze of the muffle kiln (Ju chitin). ‘‘ The colour is between 
that of the Kwangtung wares and the Yi-hsing applied glaze (kua 
yu); and in the ornamental markings (hua wén) and the trans- 
mutation tints of the flowing glaze it surpasses them.” 

(16) Ou’s glazes, with red and blue markings. 

(17) Blue mottled (ch‘ing tien) glazes: copied from old Kuang yao. . 

(18) Moon white (yiieh pai) glazes. ‘‘ The colour somewhat resembles 
the Ta Kuan glaze, but the body of the ware is white. The glaze 
is without crackle, and there are two shades—pale and dark.” 

(19) Reproductions of the ruby red (pao shao) of the Hsitian Té: the 
decoration consisting of (1) three fishes, (2) three fruits, (3) three 
fungus, or (4) the five Blessings, 

(20) Reproductions of the Lung-ch‘iian glaze with ruby red decoration 
of the kind just described. “‘ This is a new style of the reigning 
dynasty.” 

(21) Turquoise (fet ts‘ui) glazes. Copying three sorts: (1) pure tur- 
quoise, (2) blue flecked, and (3) gold flecked (chin tien). 

(22) Soufflé red (ch‘ui hung) glaze. 

(23) Soufflé blue (ch‘ui ch‘ing) glaze. 

(24) Reproductions of Yung Lo porcelain: eggshell (t‘o t‘ai), pure white 
with engraved (chui) or embossed (kung) designs. 

(25) Copies of Wan Li and Chéng Té enamelled (wu ts‘ai) porcelain. 

(26) Copies of Ch‘éng Hua enamelled (wu ts‘ai) porcelain. 

(27) Porcelain with ornament in Hsiian Té style in a yellow ground. 

(28) Cloisonné blue (fa ch‘ing) glaze. ‘‘ This glaze is the result of recent 
attempts to match this colour (i.e. the deep blue of the cloisonné 
enamels). As compared with the deep and reddish chi ch’ing, it 
is darker and more vividly blue (ts‘ui), and it has no orange-peel 
or palm-eye markings,” 

1 Symbolised by five bats. The Blessings are: longevity, riches, peace and serenity, 

love of virtue and an end crowning the life. 


64 


YUNG CHENG PORCELAIN 


(29) Reproductions of European wares with lifelike designs carved and 
engraved. “ Sets of the five sacrificial utensils, dishes, plates, vases, 
and boxes and the like are also decorated with coloured pictures 
in European style.” 

(30) Reproductions of wares with incised green decoration in a yellow 
glaze (chiao huang). 

(31) Reproductions of yellow-glazed wares: including plain mono- 
chromes and those with incised ornament. 

(32) Reproductions of purple-brown (tzi) glazed wares: including plain 
monochromes and those with incised ornament. 

(33) Porcelain with engraved ornament : including all kinds of glazes. 

(34) Porcelain with embossed (tui) ornament: including all kinds of 
glazes. 

(35) Painted red (mo hung)! : copying old specimens. 

(36) Red decoration (ts‘ai hung)? : copying old specimens. 

(37) Porcelain in yellow after the European style. 

(38) Porcelain in purple-brown (tzii) after the European style. 

(39) Silvered (mo yin) porcelain. 

(40) Porcelain painted in ink (shui mo). 

(41) Reproductions of the pure white (t‘ien pai) porcelain of the Hsiian 
Té period: including a variety of wares thick and thin, large and 
small, 

(42) Reproductions of Chia Ching wares with blue designs. 

(43) Reproductions of Ch‘éng Hua pale painted (tan miao) blue designs. 

(44) Millet colour (mi sé) glazes. “ Differing from the Sung millet 
colour.”” In two shades, dark and light. 

(45) Porcelain with red in the glaze (yu li hung): including (1) painted 
designs exclusively in red, (2) the combination of blue foliage with 
red flowers. 

(46) Reproductions of lustrous brown (tzii chin) glaze: including two 
varieties, brown and yellow. | 

(47) Porcelain with yellow glaze (chiao huang) decorated in enamel 
colours (wu ts‘ai). ‘‘ This is the result of recent experiments.” 

(48) Reproductions of green-glazed porcelain : including that with plain 
ground and engraved ornament. 


1 The mo hung porcelain has an iron-red ground laid on with a brush. A bowl in the 
Eumorfopoulos Collection illustrates this type. It has, on the exterior, medallions set in a 
red ground on which the brush marks are clearly seen. 

2 The ts‘ai hung has the design painted in iron-red on the white ground. 


65 F 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


(49) Wares with foreign colours (yang ts‘ai). ‘‘ In the new copies of 
the Western style of painting in enamels (fa-lang) the landscapes 
and figure scenes, the flowering plants and birds are without excep- 
tion of supernatural beauty and finish.” 

(50) Porcelain with embossed ornament (kung hua): including all kinds 
of glazes. 

(51) Porcelain with European (hst yang) red colour. 

(52) Reproductions of wu chin (mirror black) glazes: including those 
with black ground and white designs and those with black ground 
and gilding. 

(53) Porcelain with European green colour. 

(54) European wu chin (mirror black) wares. 

(55) Gilt (mo chin) porcelain : copying the Japanese. 

(56) Porcelain with gilt designs (miao chin) : copying the Japanese. 

(57) Porcelain with silvered designs (miao yin): copying the Japanese. 

(58) Large jars (ta kang) with Imperial factory glazes. ‘‘ Dimensions : 
diameter at the mouth, 3 ft. 4 or 5 in. to 4 ft.; height, 1 ft. 7 or 
8 in. to 2 ft. Glaze colours: (1) eel yellow, (2) cucumber green, 
and (3) mottled green and yellow (huang li tien).” 


It is evident from this list that monochromes will bulk largely among 
Yung Chéng porcelains, and that many of them will be conscious 
imitations of the old Sung and Ming types. Among the latter are the 
celadon greens and blue-greys, the crackled ash-coloured and buff glazes 
of the Ko types, the crackled lavender and clair de lune of the Kuan, and 
the variegated Chiin glazes. They will, however, be distinguished from 
the originals by the white porcelain body of Ching-té Chén, if not actually 
by Yung Chéng marks, though in some of the reproductions (those of 
the Kuan and Ko, for example) the old dark-coloured bodies were imitated 
by a dressing of dark ferruginous clay at the edges. This dressing is as 
a rule easily recognised. The imitations of the fine creamy white Ting 
wares are the chiang t‘ai or paste-bodied wares already discussed among 
the K‘ang Hsi whites; and collectors of Ming porcelain are familiar 
with the exquisite copies of the white Yung Lo eggshell porcelain. Many 
of the other monochromes will be recognised as those described in the 
last chapter, the copper reds, souffié red and powder-blue, turquoise, 
mirror black, eel yellow, cucumber green and “spotted” yellow. 
Without actual marks, it will be difficult to distinguish the K‘ang Hsi 
and Yung Chéng varieties of these wares; and we shall have to rely 


66 


YUNG CHENG PORCELAIN 


chiefly on our appreciation of form and finish. The new monochromes, 
as we learn from the T‘ao lu in a passage eulogising the work of T‘ang 
Ying, are almost all due to T‘ang Ying himself, and can therefore be dated 
after the year 1728. They are the European purple and black, the 
cloisonné blue, sky blue and transmutation glazes. The last-named are 
the well-known flambé or variegated glazes derived from copper—red 
splashed and streaked with purple, blue and grey. They had appeared 
before in the misfiring of the lang yao red, but had been counted only 
among the failures. Now the potters learnt how to produce them at 
will; and the flambé glaze became as much part of their stock-in-trade as 
the crackle glaze. This is made evident by those rather eccentric specimens 
- in which blue and white porcelain has been coated with patches of flambé. 
Another new glaze which is occasionally associated with the Yung Chéng 
mark is the tea-dust, a brown or bronze-green flecked with opaque tea- 
green. This monochrome, much prized to-day in America, is, however, 
generally regarded as a Ch‘ien Lung speciality. The porcelain enamelled 
in “* yellow after the European style ” is explained by Bushell as that with 
a coating of lemon yellow, one of the opaque enamels of the muffle kiln. 
Engraved and embossed designs underlie many of the monochromes, 
particularly the medium-fired glazes, such as the green, aubergine, and 
yellow ; and one item of the list alludes to incised designs in green set 
in a yellow glaze, a well-known Ming type also copied in the K‘ang Hsi 
period. 

Turning to the blue and white porcelain we find that the K‘ang Hsi 
traditions were preserved on the ordinary wares; but it is evident that 
this kind of porcelain was going out of fashion and that less care was 
now taken in its manufacture. The blue lacks the pulsating depths and 
the purity of the fine K’ang Hsi blue and there is a tendency to abandon 
the graded washes for pencilling. On the other hand, much ingenuity 
was expended on reproductions of old Ming types, such as the mottled 
blue of the Hsiian Té and the thick outlines and thick flat washes which 
are characteristic of the Chéng Té period. The list also reminds us that 
the dark violet Mohammedan blue of the Chia Ching period and the 
pale Ch‘éng Hua blue were imitated. Further, we know from marked 
examples that the paste and glaze and peculiar Ming finish of the foot-rim 
were carefully copied, and that there is a real difficulty in distinguishing 
the finer Yung Chéng reproductions, both of blue and white and enamelled 
wares, from the Ming originals. Nor was there any falling off in the 

1 See p. 59- 
67 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


“ steatitic ’’ blue and white (see p. 18). Indeed, with the decadence 
of the ordinary blue and white, the Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung potters 
seem to have concentrated on this dainty ware. 

The reference in Hsieh Min’s list to “* porcelain with ornament in Hsiian 
Té style in a yellow ground ”’ doubtless alludes to underglaze blue designs 
surrounded by yellow enamel. Such at any rate is the inference we should 
draw from a dish of this description in the British Museum, which has 
the Hsiian Té mark. Painting in underglaze red is mentioned under three 
headings in the same list. In one it is yu li hung (red in the glaze), including 
painted designs exclusively in red and the combinations of “‘ blue foliage 
and red flowers.” Both types are well known, and it has already been 
remarked that the underglaze red painting was particularly successful 
in the Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung periods. In another place it is the 
pao shao (ruby-red) of the Hsiian Té period, in decorations consisting of 
“ three fishes, three fruits, three funguses, or the five Blessings (wu fu),” 
symbolised by five bats. The dainty stem-cups of Hsiian Té porcelain 
with three red fishes standing out in brilliant contrast with the white ground 
are a familiar type: ; and it is easy to visualise the other designs similarly 
displayed. The third allusion is to the same designs in “ ruby-red ’”’ under 
the Lung-ch‘iian (i.e. celadon green) glaze. This, we are told, is a new 
style of the reigning dynasty. We have already had occasion to note that 
a celadon glaze appeared to be a peculiarly sympathetic medium for the 
underglaze red, and in existing specimens the red is seen to have developed 
its most brilliant tints under the celadon-green. An amplification of the 
same technique is seen in some very beautiful porcelains which have designs 
in underglaze blue and red on a backing of white slip in a celadon ground ; 
and from this we are led on to another choice ware which has similar 
designs in a ground of pale lavender blue. Vases of both kinds are 
occasionally seen with old French ormolu mounts. 

But the most decided changes are seen in the enamelled porcelains. For 
these the Yung Chéng was a period of transition. The famille verte was 
going out of fashion, though it still lingered on on sufferance, and the new 
palette of opaque enamels, the famille rose, was being perfected. But the 
old translucent enamels still figured in the imitations of the Ming porcelains 
of which the Ch‘éng Té and Wan Li types are specially mentioned in Hsieh 
Min’s list. The usual wu ts‘ai (enamelled ware) of the Wan Li period is 
that decorated with enamel colours combined with underglaze blue, but 
there is also the “‘ red and green ” family from which the blue is absent, 

1 See Wares of the Ming Dynasty, Plate 3. 
68 


YUNG CHENG PORCELAIN 


besides porcelain painted in red alone which is also specified in item 36 
of the list. 

The tradition of the Ch‘éng Hua period was delicate painting in pale 
transparent enamels with or without underglaze blue, and excellent Yung 
Chéng renderings of this type are known. They bear the Ch‘éng Hua 
mark. It would seem, too, that a very characteristic Yung Chéng decora- 
tion grew out of these Ch‘éng Hua imitations. In this the design is painted 
in underglaze blue and then covered with thin washes of transparent 
enamels. This peculiarly Yung Chéng style of enamelling is illustrated 
by Fig. 1 of Plate 55. 

But specimens of all these types are few in comparison with the famille 
rose porcelains of this period. The many allusions to European colours 
in Hsieh Min’s list refer to the opaque enamels of the famille rose, which 
are variously known as juan ts‘ai (soft colouring) or yang ts‘ai (foreign 
colouring). T‘ang Ying in his twenty illustrations of the processes of porce- 
lain manufacture! explains the term “ foreign colouring ”’ as “‘ painting 
the white porcelain in enamels (wu ts‘ai) after the manner of the Western 
foreigners (Asi yang),’’ and he adds that the colours used are the same as 
those used for enamelling on metal (fo lang ware). Fo lang or fa lang are 
terms applied both to cloisonné and to painted enamels such as were made 
at Canton: and to the latter the Chinese attributed a Western origin.? 
Probably the allusion is to painted French enamels which were brought to 
China by traders and missionaries. We know that novelties of this kind 
were much appreciated at the Imperial Court. In any case it can hardly 
refer to any European porcelain or even pottery at this period, for the 
European potters followed rather than led the Chinese in the matter of 
on-glaze enamel painting. The express reference to “ coloured pictures 
in European style ’”’ in No. 29 of Hsieh Min’s list may perhaps mean, as 
Hippisley suggests, that pictures by Jesuit artists such as Gherardini and 
Belleville were sent to the Imperial factory to be copied on the porcelain 
(see p. 97). 

Two of the colours of the famille rose palette are found on the late K‘ang 
Hsi porcelain, viz. the rose-pink which is derived from precipitate of gold 
(purple of Cassius) and the opaque arsenious white. But the rose is a poor 
and undeveloped colour, a muddy pink which does not add much to the 


1 Incorporated in the T‘ao shuo. See Bushell, op. cit., p. 25. 

2 The Chinese state that they came from Ku li (Calicut), which doubtless means that 
they were imported from one of the trading stations on the coast of India; beyond that 
they do not trace them, 


69 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


attractions of the famille verte. This colour, which now developed beautiful 
shades of ruby, rose, and carmine, became the dominating tint of the 
famille rose. The Chinese call it yen chih hung or rouge red. The other 
members of the rose family of enamels—the blue, green, yellow, etc.—are 
derived from the same metallic oxides—cobalt, copper, iron, and antimony 
—as were used to colour the transparent famille verte enamels; but the 
famille rose enamels are mostly opaque and in addition to the primary 
colours they include a great variety of mixed tints. Thus the rose-pink 
is modified with white to produce the fén hung or pale pink, and with white 
and blue to make the amaranth or blue lotus (ch‘ing lien) colour. A turquoise 
tint is obtained by mixing white and green; and the ordinary leaf green 
is darkened by increasing the lead ingredient of the flux and made bluer 
by the addition of potash. The same colour was combined with yellow 
to make an opaque yellowish green (the ku ld or ancient green); and a 
tinge of green added to white gave the very pale green known as yueh pai 
or moon white. Other mixed colours are lavender, French grey, and 
eau de nil, which is probably the European green of Hsieh Min’s list. The 
ordinary thin iron-red of the famille verte was still used, but it was also 
mixed with the glassy flux to form the thick jujube-red (tsao hung) ; and 
similarly the dry brown pigment, which forms the backing of the K‘ang 
Hsi black enamel, was mixed with flux to form the ‘“‘ European black.” 

We have seen that a good many of the ‘ European colours ”’ are included 
in the innovations made by T‘ang Ying after 1728; but we have evidence 
that the famille rose palette was far advanced before that date. A bowl 
in the British Museum,! which has a rose-pink exterior and a dainty spray 
of flowers in famille rose colours thrown across the white ground in typical 
Yung Chéng style, bears the cyclical date (in underglaze blue) “* hsin ch‘ou 
year recurring.’’ This year, the thirty-eighth of the cycle,? recurred in 
the sixtieth year of K‘ang Hsi, i.e. 1721 ; and allowing for the possibility 
that the porcelain may not have been enamelled for some little time after 
its first firing, it is fair to assume that this piece and its companion saucer 
were decorated not later than the early years of Yung Chéng. 

The Yung Chéng enamelled wares of Ching-té Chén are usually decorated 
in an exceedingly refined and delicate style. Sprays of flowers, blossoming 
boughs with the usual accompaniment of birds and insects are artistically 
painted on broad expanses of white, a nicely balanced decoration in which 
the beauty of the porcelain is allowed to play its part to the full. But 
there is another large group of the famille rose, made in the Yung Chéng 

1 See B.M. Guide, p. 89 and Fig. 127. * See p. 147. 


79 


YUNG CHENG PORCELAIN 


and early Ch‘ien Lung periods, in which the “ foreign colours ’’ occupy 
almost all the field. This was decorated in the enamelling establishments 
at Canton by the artists who painted the Canton enamels on copper, and 
the same designs and colouring are seen on both kinds of ware. The 
actual porcelain, which is usually of fine quality and eggshell thinness, 
was supplied from Ching-té Chén and it was decorated at Canton expressly 
for the foreign merchants who were in touch with the enamellers there. 
The designs usually consist of a central panel with a Chinese interior 
including ladies and children, vases and furniture, and baskets of flowers 
or dishes of fruit (see Plate 56) ; or perhaps the picture represents a pheasant 
on a rock, quails and millet, a cock and peonies or some other stock subject. 
The central design is framed in borders of richly coloured diaper patterns 
—hexagon or square, lozenge, trellis, matting, etc.—broken by medallions 
of flowering plants, landscape or archaic dragons. On some of the plates 
as many as seven different border patterns can be counted (Plate 56). 
There is much variety in the ware, which is sometimes painted in one single 
colour such as blue, or in black and gold, and sometimes the elaborate 
borders are replaced by delicate gilt designs or by ruby-pink in mono- 
chrome or variegated by floral sprays. The sides and rims of dishes are 
often covered with ruby-pink or carmine, and this is such a constant 
feature that the ware is commonly known as “ ruby back” porcelain. 
Again, there are cups and saucers, tea-pots and whole table services with 
ruby-pink grounds broken by symmetrical panels of enamelled decoration 
or by reserves in the form of picture scrolls, fans, leaves or fruit. The 
same decoration is also applied on a larger scale to vases of various forms, 
but here again a European destination is indicated, for they are generally 
in mantelpiece sets consisting of three covered jars and two beakers. A 
magnificent specimen from one of these gorgeous sets in the J. B. Joel 
Collection is illustrated in colour on Plate 25. 

The evidence connecting this group of famille rose with the Canton work- 
shops is now well known. Apart from the obvious similarity in designs 
and style of painting which exists between the porcelain and the Canton 
enamels, there are instances in which the designs of the same artist are used 
on both materials. Pictures signed by Pai-shih are a case in point, and in 
one well-known specimen of ruby-back porcelain in the British Museum 
the signature is attached to the inscription, ling nan hut ché, which means 
Canton picture. In another case a Pai-shih dish bears the cyclical date 
corresponding to 1724; but as these inscriptions are in the field of decora- 
tion, we are only at liberty to assume that this is the date of the picture 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


copied on the porcelain. There are, however, specimens of this Canton 
work which bear the Yung Chéng mark in blue under the base, and these 
we can take as evidence that this class of ware was made in the period under 
discussion. If, however, the general distrust of Chinese date-marks prevents 
the reader accepting this evidence, there are specimens in the Dresden 
Collection which may convince him ; and there is a tankard in the British 
Museum (Plate 70, Fig. 2) painted in Canton style and bearing the arms 
of Yorke and Cocks which must for heraldic reasons have been made 
between 1720 and.1733; and there is also a cup and saucer with famille 
rose enamelling and the arms of the Dutch East India Company dated 1728. 

The famille rose enamels are also seen in panels set in grounds of 
high-fired glazes. On the “ Batavian ware’”’ the ground colour is lustrous 
coffee-brown (tzii chin) ; and there are a few rare specimens with famille 
rose panels in a ground of mirror black (wu chin). A vase in the Lady Lever 
Art Gallery has a mirror black glaze. on which scattered designs are 
painted in famille rose enamels. This probably explains the yang ts‘ai wu 
chin (mirror black with foreign colours) which is included by the T‘ao lu 
among T‘ang Ying’s innovations, though the actual specimen in question 
apparently belongs to the Ch‘ien Lung period. 

The fortieth item in Hsieh Min’s list is “‘ porcelain painted in ink (shui 
mo).’’ This refers to a well-known type of porcelain with designs pencilled 
in dry black or brown-black with or without gilding. Pére d’Entrecolles 
tells us in his letter of 1722 that an attempt had actually been made to 
paint the ware in Chinese ink, but (naturally) without success. Evidently 
the proper medium (the dry black, manganese pigment) was discovered 
by T‘ang Ying. Black and gold is frequently used in border designs 
on Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung wares, and red and gold are used 
in the same manner. The red and gold designs sometimes form the 
entire decoration of vases of this period. Another invention ascribed 
to T‘ang was the use of silver both for ground-laying and for painting. 
Examples of the former on the borders of famille rose plates and of the 
latter on dishes with lustrous brown glaze are to be seen in the British 
Museum : but the silver very soon loses its colour and turns black. Pro- 
fessor Zimmermann! alludes to rare examples of silvered designs (instead 
of the usual gilding) on powder-blue. But it is evident that T‘ang can only 
have introduced the use of silvering at the Imperial factory and that he was 
not the inventor of it, for Pére d’Entrecolles alludes to porcelain decorated 
with silvered designs on a lustrous brown glaze as early as 1722, 

1 Chinesische Porzellan, p. 240; 


72 


YUNG CHENG PORCELAIN 


The Yung Chéng famille rose is best known in Europe by the work of 
the Canton enamellers, and Western collections contain numerous examples 
mostly made for the European market. Some of it, such as the dishes on 
Plate 56, is exquisitely finished, some is coarse and commonplace; and in 
any case, if not used with restraint, its effect as decoration is apt to be over- 
powering. The native taste of the time is more truly reflected in such 
specimens as Fig. 1 of Plate 57, a dish in which the beauty of the almost 
perfect porcelain is set off by an exquisitely drawn design of flowering 
plants and butterflies. By a favourite trick of the Yung Chéng artists the 
picture begins on the reverse of. the dish and is completed on the main 
surface. Dishes like this—and we know of some of imposing dimensions 
—have the distinction which is the hall-mark of the best Yung Chéng 
porcelain, be it dish or bowl or vase. The same beautiful but naturalistic 
rendering of flowering plants is seen again in Figs. 2 and 3 of Plate 62, 
though here the enamels are survivals of the famille verte. It was indeed 
a tradition which lasted for more than one generation, for we see it again 
in Ch‘ien Lung specimens such as the bowl with poppies on Plate 57, and 
again on the so-called Ku-yiieh porcelain which is discussed on page 82. 
The same spirit inspires the specimens on Plate 58: one a remarkable dish 
with a life-like picture of a quail and peonies painted over a faintly incised 
design of Imperial dragons, the back covered with ruby-pink enamel in 
the centre of which is a plain gilt medallion : the other a bowl of beautiful 
white porcelain with five medallions formed of butterflies and flowers 
in which a complete mastery of the grading and blending of the famille 
rose colours is displayed. 


ie 


CHAPTER VIII 


CH‘IEN LUNG PORCELAIN (1736-95) 


Four was evidently the lucky number of the Manchu royal family. Again 
it was the fourth son who was chosen to succeed to the throne and again 
the choice proved fortunate for China. The new Emperor who reigned 
under the name of Ch‘ien Lung was perhaps the greatest of all Chinese 
rulers. His rule was autocracy at its best, when a large-minded, brave 
and gifted monarch wholeheartedly devotes his talents to the service of the 
State. Ch‘ien Lung was master of the arts of war no less than of those of 
peace, and the Chinese Empire reached its widest expansion during his 
reign. Chinese Turkestan and Tibet were brought beneath its sway and 
even India was made to feel its power. The untamed aboriginal tribes in 
the South and West were subdued, and Burmah, Siam and Annam 
became its tributaries. Meanwhile China herself enjoyed a prolonged period 
of good government with its natural accompaniment of prosperity. 

But, strange to say, the same reign which witnessed the culminating 
greatness of the Manchu power also saw implanted the seeds of decay. 
In his old age Ch‘ien Lung committed the fatal fault which had been the 
ruin of the Ming dynasty. He allowed the reins of power to slip into the 
hands of an unworthy favourite, named Ho Shén, whose corruption and 
misrule brought up a harvest of discontent for the next Emperor to reap. 
In 1795 Ch‘ien Lung abdicated the throne at the age of eighty-six in 
fulfilment of his vow that he would not outreign his illustrious grandfather 
K‘ang Hsi; but he remained a power in the land until his death, which took 
place in 1799. 

Ch‘ien Lung was a great patron of the arts, himself a poet and calligrapher 
and a determined collector of antiques. The Catalogue of the Imperial 
Collection of bronzes compiled by his orders ranks as a classic on this 
subject ; and poems of his composition and in his style of calligraphy are 
occasionally seen on porcelain and jade. One of his first acts was the 
appointment of T‘ang Ying to succeed Nien Hsi-yao as commissioner of 
customs at Huai-an Fu, a post which carried with it the direction of the 
Imperial porcelain factory. The Imperial porcelain was shipped to Peking 
by the Grand Canal and Huai-an Fu, which is situated on the canal, was 
doubtless a convenient place to supervise this traffic ; but it was inconveni- 
ently distant for Ching-té Chén, and in 1739 the commissionership was 
transferred to Kiu-kiang, at the junction of the Po-yang Lake and the 
Yangtze, which is within much easier reach of the centre of porcelain 
manufacture. T‘ang Ying remained in charge until 1749, and it is unlikely 


74 


CH‘IEN LUNG PORCELAIN 


that he was content to direct the work only from a distance. Of all the 
directors of the Imperial factory T‘ang had the most intimate knowledge 
of the manufacturing processes. Indeed when first sent to Ching-té Chén 
in 1728 he served a voluntary apprenticeship of three years, eating, sleeping 
and working with the potters. He was in fact an expert ceramist and, as 
already seen, he was able to introduce many new methods of manufacture. 
He was also an authoritative writer on the subject, as is evident from his 
autobiography and his collected works. Before taking up his post at the 
customs in 1736, he compiled notes setting out the practical knowledge 
accumulated during eight years’ work, for the benefit of his successors ; and 
in 1743 at the command of the Emperor he wrote a description of the pro- 
cesses of porcelain manufacture as a commentary on twenty pictures in 
the Imperial Collection. Prints of these pictures are known to us, some 
by the illustrations appended to the Ching té chén t‘ao lu and twelve of 
them by copies exhibited with the porcelain collection in the British 
Museum. Moreover, T‘ang’s descriptions are incorporated in the T‘ao 
shuo, which was published in 1774, in the section dealing with ‘‘ modern 
wares ’’; and Bushell’s translation of this important work is available for 
English readers. 

A eulogy of T‘ang’s work in the T‘ao lu tells us ‘‘ that he had a profound 
knowledge of the properties of the different kinds of clay and of the action 
of the fire upon them, and he took every care in the selection of proper 
materials, so that his wares were all exquisite, lustrous, and of perfect 
purity. In imitating the celebrated wares of antiquity he never failed to 
make an exact copy, and in the imitation of all sorts of famous glazes there 
were none which he could not cleverly reproduce. There was, in fact, 
nothing that he could not successfully accomplish. . . . The clay used was 
white, rich, and refined, and the body of the porcelain, whether thick or 
thin, was always unctuous (ni). The Imperial wares attained their greatest 
perfection at this time.’”” We have omitted the sentences which record 
‘T‘ang’s innovations, because they repeat the various items of Hsieh Min’s 
list on which we have already commented. The only fresh item is yao 
pien, or transmutation, glaze which will be explained presently. Elsewhere 
we learn that among T‘ang’s special triumphs were the revival of the old 
dragon fish-bowls (lung kang) and of the Sung Chiin yao glazes and the 
turquoise and rose (mei kuei) colours in ‘‘ new tints and rare beauty.”” The 
rose colour is doubtless the ruby-pink enamel of the famille rose ; and 
indeed most of T‘ang’s novelties belong to the group of “‘ foreign colours.” 
The critical reader may ask how these colours were claimed as novelties by 


75 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


Tang, whose work did not begin before 1728, when we have seen that they 
were in use as early as 1721. The answer is that new blends of the famille 
rose colours were constantly added to the list and in any case T‘ang’s work 
was only concerned with the Imperial wares. 

It is evident that in dealing with the Ch‘ien Lung porcelains we shall be 
confronted with a bewildering quantity of material; and, though it can 
hardly be dismissed by a few general assertions in the manner of the T’ao 
lu, it is a comfort to know that much of the ground has already been covered 
in the chapters on K‘ang Hsi and Yung Chéng wares. Of the numerous 
monochromes there are few which do not figure in Hsieh Min’s list. The 
imitations of the antique are fully explained in that document and we need 
only add that the fashion of collecting antique bronzes, porcelains, etc., 
which was set by the Emperor and permeated Chinese society in general, 
reacted powerfully on the porcelain of the time. The shapes of old bronzes 
and jades were freely used for the display of the old glazes and at no period 
of Chinese ceramics were archaic forms so sedulously copied. 

With regard to the colours, the underglaze red appears chiefly in the 
crimson and liver-coloured glazes, of which there is a considerable variety. 
One is crimson of stippled appearance which seems to have been blown 
on (souffié), and another, and rarer, kind is a “‘ fluescent glaze of light 
liver-red deepening into crimson.’’ Curiously enough this last is generally 
found on one particular form of vessel, a jug-shaped ewer with long pointed 
spout which is protected by a corresponding projection from the cover, the 
whole recalling a Thibetan temple bronze. Thistype of glaze is distinguished 
in Japan by the name of toko. The lang yao reds were not, as far as we 
know, made with any measure of success at this time. The control of the 
glaze is conspicuously wanting in the Ch‘ien Lung attempts at sang-de-beuf, 
and the red is generally broken by streaks of purple, blue and grey. On 
the other hand, the flambé effects, which come from subjecting the copper- 
red to a reducing atmosphere in the kiln, were freely produced; and one 
of T’ang’s triumphs was the mastery of this kind of variegated glaze. 
Not only were fine results obtained with the rich crimson glazes mottled 
and streaked with grey, blue, purple and green: but a variegated, or 
transmutation, glaze could be applied locally with certainty of effect, and 
we find it run over other glazes, and even over blue and white wares. 
There are, too, a number of complex glazes which were specialities of the 
Ch‘ien Lung period. Bronze-greens, iron-rust (a dark reddish brown 
strewn with metallic specks) and tea-dust (ch‘a yeh mo), an ochreous- 
brown or bronze-green thickly flecked with opaque tea-green. It is said 


76 


CH‘IEN LUNG PORCELAIN 


that the tea-dust glaze was one of those specially reserved for the Emperor. 
There were, too, numerous composite greens in which opaque green 
enamel was laid over a crackled glaze, producing, for example, the sage 
and camellia-leaf tints. And there were mottled glazes with bird’s-egg 
markings, in which rose-pink enamel was blown on to an opaque bluish 
green. The so-called “ robin’s egg ’’ glaze belongs to this class, and so 
does, apparently, the ‘‘ Chiin glaze of the muffle kiln’’ which is mentioned 
in Hsieh Min’s list (cf. Fig. 8 of Plate 69). 

Two of T‘ang’s glazes singled out for special notice in the preface to his 
collected works are the turquoise and the rose-pink. We certainly do find 
many lovely specimens of the turquoise glaze among the Ch‘ien Lung 
porcelains, though they do not differ notably from the K‘ang Hsi pieces 
except in shape and in the body material which is often reddish and of 
rather rough texture. The last feature was due to a mixture of ferruginous 
earth which seems to have helped the development of the turquoise colour. 
It has also been noticed that some of the Ch‘ien Lung vases made with this 
mixture are exceptionally light in weight. 

The rose-pink (mei kuei) is evidently an enamel of the famille rose type, 
the same in fact as is seen on the ruby-back dishes. We find it now used as 
a monochrome in various shades of deep ruby and carmine, mostly on small 
vases of eggshell porcelain which sometimes has a granulated or “ orange- 
peel’ surface. Occasionally it appears in Sas tints of clouded crimson, 
a sort of famille rose flambé. 

Many other opaque famille rose enamels were used as monochromes. 
Among the yellows, for instance, there are the lemon, an opaque enamel 
with rather rough skin, and the crackled mustard-yellow. There are enamel 
blues such as the intense cloisonné blue and the amaranth or blue lotus 
colour. And there is a fine soufflé iron-red, thicker and more rich in flux 
than the ordinary enameller’s coral-red, which is sometimes called ‘‘ jujube- 
red.”’ A small vase in the Salting Collection (No. 2091) is an unusually 
fine specimen of this deep “‘ juicy ’’ red enamel. And there are an opaque 
bluish green, almost a turquoise-green, which is seen occasionally as a 
monochrome but more often as a wash on the inside of bowls and on the 
mouth and under the base of vases; and an enamel black which is described 
as “lac black ”’ in the list of T‘ang’s achievements. 

Again, some of the choicest Ch‘ien Lung monochromes have glazes of 
well-established type, such as sky blue, dark blue, lavender, delicate clair 


1 The orange-yellow and the sulphur-yellow of the period are more in the nature of 
glazes; the latter is apt to break into lustrous patches, 


qT 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


de lune, celadon green, mirror black, lustrous brown, and crackles of many 
kinds. The medium-fired glazes include the usual yellows, greens, and 
lustrous aubergine-purple, and a dark violet-blue which is the colour of 
the roof tiles and of the sacrificial vessels of the Temple of Heaven at 
Peking. There is also a dark blue glaze rather thick and fluescent, which 
is used as a surround for famille rose panels. Like the powder-blue and 
mirror black this glaze is usually relieved by gilt traceries. Finally there 
are the pure whites and the opaque “‘ paste-bodied’”’ ware of Ting type 
with beautiful cream glaze. 

There is, in fact, no known glaze effect which was not successfully 
produced by the Ch‘ien Lung potters, and when they had exhausted the 
range of plain monochromes they tested their skill with the imitation of all 
manner of alien substances. Bronzes were ingeniously copied with their 
varying patinas and their gold and silver inlay : cloisonné enamels, emerald- 
green jade, cinnabar-red Peking lacquer, grained wood and even millefiori 
glass were reproduced well enough to deceive the superficial observer, 
To quote the words of the T‘ao shuo', ‘‘ among all the works of art in carved 
gold, embossed silver, chiselled stone, lacquer, mother-of-pearl, bamboo 
and wood, gourd and shell, there is not one that is not now produced in 
porcelain, a perfect copy of the original piece.” 

We may mention here the “ lac burgauté,” though it is not strictly an imita- 
tion of lacquer in porcelain. It is rather porcelain coated with black lacquer 
in which elaborate designs such as landscapes, figures, etc., are cleverly 
inlaid in mother-of-pearl. Most of this work seems to date from the 
Ch‘ien Lung period, though there may be a few specimens as early as K‘ang 
Hsi. Lacquering on a porcelain body was not unknown to the late Ming 
potters and it is occasionally seen on the 19th-century wares ; but it was 
not practised in China to the same extent as in Japan. 

The Ch‘ien Lung blue and white is not comparable with that of the 
K‘ang Hsi period, but it was still sufficiently important to monopolise 
three of T‘ang’s illustrations of the manufacturing processes. From these 
we can learn that the cobalt mineral was now obtained from the mountains 
in Chekiang and that large services with the same pattern accurately repeated 
were supplied for the palace use. The same processes of refining the blue, 
and of applying it to the ware and the same division of labour were em- 
ployed as in the K‘ang Hsi period, and T‘ang’s descriptions cover for the 
most part familiar ground. He tells us, however, that if the blue is over-fired 
it tends to run into the white glaze and that if it is not covered by the glaze 

1 Bushell, op. cit., p. 6. 
78 


CH‘IEN LUNG PORCELAIN 


it comes out black. One sees occasional pieces of biscuit porcelain with 
designs pencilled in a thick dry black, and we may assume that we are dealing 
here with blue-painted specimens left deliberately unglazed. T ‘ang also 
refers to one kind of blue called onion sprouts ‘‘ which makes very clearly 
defined brush-strokes and does not run in the fire and this must be used 
for the most delicate pieces.”” This fine blue was doubtless that used in 
painting the “ steatitic ’” porcelain which was now made in considerable 
quantity, both that with the hua shih body and that with only a surface wash 
of that mineral. The latter, which might be conveniently distinguished 
as “‘ steatite dip,” had the advantage of being usable in vases of large size ; 
and we find many finely pencilled specimens of both kinds among the Ch‘ien 
Lung blue and whites. For the rest the ordinary blue and white of the 
period is mostly painted with designs borrowed from bronzes—ogre heads, 
stiff leaves, arabesques and meanders—or with rather close and fussy 
floral scrolls generally in the blotchy or mottled blue which characterised 
some of the early Ming porcelains. There is, too, the common blue and 
white made chiefly for export, but it has no distinction either in the colour 
or the designs. 

On the other hand, painting in underglaze red was carried on with marked 
success at this time, and the potters showed their skill in the management 
of this difficult colour. This red was also used in combination with under- 
glaze blue or with passages of celadon glaze and white slip and again under 
a pale celadon glaze, as on the Yung Chéng wares. 

We need not linger on the decoration in medium-fired coloured glazes 
on the Ch‘ien Lung porcelain. It was in use now as in the previous reigns, 
and there are many neat little rice-bowls with engraved dragon designs 
glazed green in a ground of yellow, or yellow in an aubergine ground, or 
in other combinations, which belong to this period, even though many of 
them have the K‘ang Hsi mark. But there is one type of ware with coloured 
glazes which is peculiarly Ch‘ien Lung.? It generally takes the form of 
vases modelled after bronze designs and often with elephant-head handles 
and stiff ornament in low relief or with engraved outlines, covered with 
sleek, smooth glazes—a full brownish yellow, leaf green, aubergine, white 
and a vivid blue which is perhaps the outstanding feature of this ware. 
The seal-box on Plate 74 is decorated in this style. The same decoration 
and the same glazes are also seen on an earthenware body. 

At the beginning of the Ch‘ien Lung period the vogue of the famille rose 
was at its height, and all other kinds of polychrome and painted wares 

aU SEe DP. 19. 2 See C.P.P., Vol. II, Plate 124, Fig. 2. 


79 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


shrank into insignificance beside the immense variety of enamelled porce- 
lains of this type. The author of the T‘ao shuo tells us plainly that “ foreign 
colouring ” was still paramount in his day (the book was published in 
1774): “‘ porcelain painted in colours,’’ he says, “‘ excelled in the Ming 
dynasty, the majority of the patterns being derived from embroidery and 
brocaded silks, three or four out of each ten being from Nature and copies 
of antiques. In modern porcelain, out of ten designs you will get four of 
foreign colouring, three taken from Nature, two copies of antiques, one 
from embroidery or silk brocade.” In actual fact the proportion of “* foreign 
colouring,” i.e. famille rose decoration in our interpretation of the term, to 
other painted wares is more like eight out of ten; for famille verte is now 
practically non-existent and, excluding blue and red painting under the 
glaze, practically all the painted designs whether taken from Nature or 
embroidery are rendered in the enamels of the rose family. Possibly the 
writer makes a distinction between the Canton type—the ruby back dishes, 
etc.—which avowedly followed the Canton enamels, a ware of foreign 
origin, and the porcelain decorated with the traditional Chinese designs. 
As to the designs, there is no lack in the famille rose porcelain of those 
taken from Nature. There are landscapes, flowering plants and birds, the 
“hundred flowers” which the French call mille fleurs, the “‘ hundred deer,” 
a design representing numbers of deer in landscape,’ the “ hundred birds,” 
to mention only a few typical examples. Brocade patterns are frequent in 
borders and in the close floral scrolls which meander through grounds of 
yellow and pink, a characteristic Ch‘ien Lung decoration both on porcelain 
and on cloisonné enamels. 

The famille rose colours have already been fully described, and those of 
the Ch‘ien Lung period show few fresh features, unless it be the use of 
mixed tints to give light and shade somewhat in the European style. One 
sees, for instance, graded tints on the petals of flowers and in the rendering 
of rocks and hills, But there are certain new kinds of decoration which 
should be noticed. The surface of small vases, bowls, and dishes, for 
instance, is sometimes covered with an opaque enamel—pink, yellow, 
green, blue, lavender or grey—which is engraved all over with feathery 
scrolls. This graviata decoration, as it is called, occasionally occurs on 
monochromes, but more often the ground is broken by painted floral sprays 
or inset scrolls or by reserved medallions of painted designs. A vase with 
this decoration in the Ezekiel Collection is shown on Plate 59; and there 
is a very elaborate specimen with coloured flowers in a pink ground engraved 

1 After a late Ming picture by Wén Chéng-ming. 
80 


CH‘IEN LUNG PORCELAIN 


with geometrical ornament in the Salting Collection (No. 1418). There 
is, too, a class of rice-bowl decorated in this manner with medallions set 
in an opaque enamel ground, graviata or otherwise, which is known by 
the name of Peking bowls. These were made for the Palace and sent to 
Peking, and it must not be inferred from the name that they were manu- 
factured at the capital. The contents of the medallions are usually floral 
designs, landscapes or figure subjects, but it is no uncommon thing to find 
an obviously European figure depicted in them. The Peking bowls con- 
tinued to be made in the ensuing reigns and some of the best are of Tao 
Kuang date. Another form of graviata is seen occasionally on bowls and 
dishes which are coated with a faintly greenish white enamel engraved with 
formal wave pattern. This white enamel sometimes has a curious shrivelled 
or chilled appearance and it is generally rather lustrous when applied as 
a ground colour. A similar opaque white is used for tracing delicate floral 
borders on the rims of dishes, and for floral scroll patterns on the sides of 
bowls, etc. 

Much play was made with the iron-reds of coral or brick tint on the 
Ch*‘ien Lung ware. Large areas of the porcelain are often occupied by 
this colour, which is sometimes of powdery texture indicating that it has 
been blown on; and again it is used as a ground colour for enamelled 
medallions or panels (Plate 66), and like so many of the ground colours 
it is occasionally relieved by gilding. Gilding and silvering occur with 
greater frequency now than in previous periods; black and gold, and red 
and gold are used in delicate floral scrollwork, and whole surfaces of 
bronze-green and celadon monochromes are painted with close arabesques 
and scrolls in gold. Gold, too, often replaces the lustrous brown on the 
edges of plates and bowls. Various kinds of black appear in the enamelled 
decoration, notably the “‘ foreign ”’ black in which the pigment and flux 
are mixed together and applied like an ordinary enamel. This black is 
used in combination with the famille rose enamels (Plate 60, Fig. 1), 
often as a ground colour inlaid with enamelled scrollwork. The famille 
verte black—formed by a green wash over a dry black pigment—is also 
used, but to a limited extent and generally in a particular decoration in 
which a close floral scrollwork is reserved in the black pigment ground 
and the whole surface, both black and white, washed over with transparent 
green (Plate 59, Fig. 2). 

Though we are in the habit of speaking of Chinese porcelain as if it were 
a uniform composition, there are in reality many exceptions to the general 
recipe for its manufacture. Indeed we have already noted several, such as 


81 G 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


the “ steatitic ’’ and “ paste-bodied ’’ wares, besides the variations in the 
glaze made to suit different types of decoration. A study of Chinese 
snuff-bottles, for instance, will make one acquainted with a surprising 
variety of bodies and glazes, and among them one cannot fail to notice 
a dead white porcelain of soft and glassy appearance. This would appear 
to have originated in an attempt to copy in porcelain a special kind of 
opaque glass which was made at the Imperial glass works at Peking under 
the directorship of an artist named Hu. The component parts of the 
character hu, if taken separately, can be read as ku ytieh (ancient moon), 
and Hu consequently adopted the studio name of Ku Yiieh Hsiian (Ancient 
Moon Pavilion). The Ku-yiieh glass was sometimes painted in enamels 
to which a peculiar delicacy was imparted by the soft excipient; and 
the story is that the Emperor, who admired the ware, expressed a wish 
that the same effect should be produced in porcelain, and that T‘ang 
Ying made this peculiarly glassy ware in response to the Imperial 
demand, 

Not only, indeed, was the material copied in porcelain but an enamelled 
decoration in what is known as the Ku-yiieh style came into being. This 
consists of floral designs, landscapes with figures, which are sometimes in 
European taste, painted in soft, delicate famille rose or mixed enamels. 
The execution of the painting is singularly fine, and there is an unusual 
play of light and shade in the pictures. 

The enamelled Ku-yiieh glass is extremely rare and costly to-day. There 
is a specimen in the Hippisley Collection—a small brush-pot with figures 
of the Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove—which was illustrated in my 
Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, and there is another in the Ezekiel Collection. 
Landscapes with dark brown rocks, flowering plants exquisitely drawn 
and coloured to Nature, and white-robed figures appear to be the favourite 
designs on this painted glass; and the fang ku yiieh, or imitation Ku-yiieh, 
ware should reproduce these features of decoration on a peculiarly fine 
and glassy white porcelain. We are fortunate in being able to illustrate 
the latter by Fig. 1 of Plate 26, a tiny bottle-shaped vase intended to 
hold a single spray of flowers on the writing-table, and which is probably 
the best example of the ware outside China. It is perfect in every 
detail, the quality of the body and glaze and the supreme delicacy of 
the drawing and colouring of the simple design with rock, flowering 
begonia and iris and hovering insect. A stanza of verse with seals of the 

1 The Ku-yiieh glass belongs to both Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung periods. 
2 Vol. II, Plate 125. 
82 


CH‘IEN LUNG PORCELAIN 


artist complete the picture ; and the mark, that of the Ch‘ien Lung period, 
is in mauve enamel. 

The teapot on Plate 63 is also of glassy white porcelain with design on 
a larger scale but executed with scarcely less refinement. It has also a 
stanza of verses and seals and the Ch‘ien Lung mark in enamel. The 
glassy body and raised enamel marks would suggest that Figs. 2 and 3 
of Plate 62 belong also to the Ku-yiieh class, but the designs on these 
for all their beauty are not strictly in the Ku-yiieh style or colouring. 

On the other hand, we have specimens on which the Ku-yiieh style 
of painting is clearly followed, but on a porcelain which has no obvious 
relation to the original glass. The remarkable vase on Plate 61 has an 
“ orange-peel” glaze enamelled in Ku-yiieh style with a landscape, 
shepherdess and sheep. There is something so distinctly European in 
the composition of this picture—the pose and expression of the figure 
and the general grouping—that one cannot resist the conclusion that it 
is a Chinese interpretation of a European design. It has indeed been 
suggested that the originals of such pictures! as this were the work of 
one of the Jesuits, such as Gherardini and Belleville, who are said to 
have started a school of painting in China on European lines; but this is 
a matter of conjecture. 

Three rams, symbolising the return of spring, a rock and flowering 
plants form the decoration of a beautiful bowl in the Warre Collection 
illustrated on Plate 26. The painting is in the Ku-yiieh style, but the 
porcelain is a peculiar ivory white which is rarely seen elsewhere. Again, 
the panels of the brush-pot (Fig. 1, Plate 73) must be regarded as 
examples of Ku-yiieh style—that with the tall white figure compares 
closely with the designs on Ku-yiieh glass—but the ware is of the ordinary 
Ch‘ien Lung type. 

The influence of the Ku-yiieh style was not transient. It lasted through 
the long reign of Ch‘ien Lung, and we see it reflected in the better class 
of 19th-century enamelled porcelains. Indeed, when the old designs 
are used, as on a bowl with Tao Kuang mark in the Ezekiel Collection, 
the decoration is not distinguishable from that of the Ch‘ien Lung 
specimens. It seems, in fact, that we should distinguish the specimens 
with glassy body as of the early period when the type was initiated, and 
those with the ordinary body as younger members of the family. 

The glassy porcelain of the Ku-yiieh type was not used solely for 

1 In the Lady Lever Art Gallery there is a pair of vases with design of a shepherd and 
fairy-like lady which seems to be an echo of some European pastoral subject. 


83 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


enamelled wares. It is occasionally seen with pencilled designs in under- 
glaze blue and also with a peculiar kind of ‘‘ tattooed” decoration.t In 
this latter type, which has already been described, the design is incised 
in the body of the ware, a little blue is rubbed into the incisions and the 
whole is glazed. The finished effect is a very faint blue decoration under 
the glaze. 

It will be convenient to mention here two special types of decoration 
which date from the Ch‘ien Lung period. One is called ‘ lace-work ” 
and the other “ rice-grain.’”” In the former the designs—generally close 
floral scrolls—are deeply incised in the body of the ware and the whole 
is covered with a glaze of faint celadon green tint. The glaze fills up 
and emphasises the incised designs, which appear as semi-transparencies 
when held against the light. Marked specimens of this ware generally 
bear the reign-name of Ch‘ien Lung; but there are rare instances in 
which the mark is that of the Ming Emperor Hsiian Té. There is, 
however, no reference to a decoration of this kind in the descriptions 
of Ming porcelain, and it is probable that Ming marks on this “‘ lace-work” 
porcelain are apocryphal. The “ rice-grain’’ decoration goes a step 
further, and the pattern is formed by cutting out small segments of the 
body about the size and shape of a grain of rice. The glaze—in this case 
an ordinary white glaze—is run over the ware and fills up the perforations 
with a transparent glass, so that the design is seen in tiny window-panes 
when held against the light. The Japanese give this ware the picturesque 
name of hotarude (fire-fly style). The rice-grain decoration is often 
supplemented by underglaze blue and sometimes by enamelled designs. 
The Ch‘ien Lung mark appears on this ware, but it was also made in 
subsequent reigns; and a good specimen in the British Museum is 
inscribed in blue with the name of the potter Wang Shéng-kao and a 
date corresponding to 1798: another piece has the Tao Kuang mark 
of the Shén-té Hall.2 The rice-grain decoration, though a comparatively 
modern innovation in China, was used by Persian and Syrian potters 
as long ago as the 12th century. 

Nor were the Ch‘ien Lung potters a whit behind their predecessors in 
the manipulation of delicate openwork and reliefs. Witness the lanterns 
with finely pierced fretwork panels, the perforated perfume boxes, dishes 
with openwork borders, vases with pierced outer casing and even with 
free revolving belts, perfume vases hung on porcelain chains, teapots with 
panels of openwork and moulded and encrusted flowers, and tea ware 

1 See also p. 21. 2 See ps aA7- 
84 


CH‘IEN LUNG PORCELAIN 


modelled in the form of lotus flowers and coloured after Nature. There 
were figures, too, of all kinds modelled in the round and decorated with 
the typical Ch‘ien Lung enamelling, genre figures, deities, animals and 
birds, beside the dainty little objects used on the writing-table which 
were moulded in all manner of quaint shapes. 

Looking at the finer Ch‘ien Lung porcelains, especially those made for 
Imperial use and for the more fastidious Chinese connoisseurs, we are 
ready to admit at once that the Chinese potters reached the zenith of 
manipulative skill during this period. Whether we admire these perfect 
productions as much as the bolder and broader effects of the Ming and 
K’‘ang Hsi wares is a matter of taste. There are many who tire very soon 
of the soft tones of the famille rose and the miniature-like delicacy of its 
designs, and turn with relief to the more virile and less cloying style of 
the earlier wares. They find, too, that for decorative effect the latter are 
more satisfying. Again, the Ch‘ien Lung imitations of the antique are too 
finished and elaborate to be convincing, and the forms have often a rather 
forced ingenuity which contrasts ill with the simple, restful shapes which 
come naturally on the potter’s wheel. Indeed, the Ch‘ien Lung decoration 
in the main is more pretty than beautiful; and neatness and artificial 
elegance rule in place of boldness and vigour. 

But whatever our views may be on the merits of the Ch‘ien Lung 
porcelain, they should be based on the true representatives of the art, 
the wares made for Chinese consumption ; and we must leave for separate 
consideration the vast quantities of export porcelains which came to 
Europe during this long reign and still survive there in considerable 
numbers. Though not altogether devoid of merit, this class of ware is 
on the whole inferior stuff and obviously made for foreign consumption, 
It consists largely of table wares, tea and coffee services, rose-water ewers 
of bottle-shape with basins to match, punch-bowls, ornaments and vases, 
the last generally in pairs or sets of five. The usual mantelpiece set 
includes two beakers and three covered vases or jars; the latter are 
generally of slender oval form, sometimes square or with flattened sides, 
and the covers are often surmounted with a figure of a lion. 

The so-called ‘‘ Mandarin’ porcelain belongs to this group. It has 
nothing to do with kuan yao or official porcelain of the Chinese texts, but 
gets its name from the fact that groups of figures in Mandarin dress 
frequently appear in the panels which form a constant part of its decoration. 
These panels are painted in underglaze blue and enamel colours, in which 
pink and coral-red are daringly combined, and they are commonly framed 


85 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


with composite designs of blue and white, pink scale diaper and gilt 
feathery scrolls broken by small vignettes and medallions in which are 
sketchy landscapes, birds on branches and growing flowers in pink, red, 
or sepia (Plate 70). In some cases the surrounds of the panels are moulded 
in low relief or encrusted with reliefs of rat and vine pattern or flowers 
and foliage; or, again, they are granulated with small dots, giving a sort 
of shagreened surface which is enamelled in pale bluish green. Some 
of the Mandarin vases are made of fine eggshell porcelain and others have 
the lumpy “ orange-peel ” glaze which was much affected at this time ; 
but as a rule the ware itself has no special distinction. 

A less elaborate but kindred ware has similar composite borders and 
surrounds, but the panels are occupied by sprays of roses or other flowers 
in pink and red, drawn in a very European style. Such flowers as these 
figure largely on the minor English porcelains of the late 18th century 
made at Lowestoft and New Hall and elsewhere. In fact, it is hard to 
say whether the Chinese ware of this class was more indebted to Europe 
for its not very distinguished decoration or vice versa. But more will 
be said on this point in another chapter. 

Among the most familiar of the late Ch‘ien Lung export wares are the 
punch-bowls and vases brought back by the tea-merchants. These are 
commonly decorated in the Mandarin style, but the panels are sometimes 
filled with European figures instead of Chinese. 

It is doubtful if any of this Mandarin porcelain would be found in 
China to-day. It is not in Chinese taste and was probably almost all 
exported. It belongs to the last half of the 18th century and it superseded 
the early 18th-century “‘ red and blue ”’ family (see p. 40) in the foreign 
trade. One might easily form quite a collection of both these types in 
Europe to-day, and they are not to be despised as decoration, though they 
are in no way representative of the Chinese potter’s art. 


86 


CHAPTER IX 


THE 19TH-CENTURY PORCELAIN 


The reign of Chia Ch‘ing (1796-1820), who succeeded Ch‘ien Lung, 
was an age of insurrection. A powerful aboriginal tribe called the Miao- 
tzu revolted in Kweichow and was only suppressed after much difficulty 
and many reverses. The seething discontent caused by the extortions 
and injustices of the eunuch Ho Shén culminated in the White Lily 
rebellion which broke out in Hupeh in 1796 and was not quelled till 1804. 
The corrupt Ho Shén himself was put to death immediately after the 
decease of Ch‘ien Lung in 1799; and his ill-gotten gains, which reached 
the huge total of 2,000,000,000 taels, were sequestered ; but it is calculated 
that the whole of this sum was expended in dealing with the White Lily 
rebellion. It was, moreover, made clear that the long period of luxurious 
living in China had sapped the fibre of the Manchus and that they had 
ceased to be the race of doughty warriors which had conquered China. 
After the rebellion came a series of mutinies in the army; and the 
crushing of the White Lilies did not discourage the growth of numerous 
other secret societies which now honeycombed the country. Incidentally 
we might mention that in striking at these the Emperor laid his ban on 
the Roman Catholic Church, which had hitherto enjoyed a large measure 
of toleration in China. 

The reign of Tao Kuang which followed (1821-50) was hardly less 
disturbed ; and to internal troubles was added the first Foreign War, 
which broke out in 1840 and ended with the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. 
By this treaty China was forced to cede Hongkong to the British, to 
open a number of ports to foreign trade and to treat foreign nations on 
terms of equality. A treaty which was now made with the French 
removed the ban on the Roman Catholic Church. 

But the most serious danger which threatened the Manchu throne was 
the great T‘ai P‘ing rebellion. The first symptoms of this upheaval were 
felt in the province of Kwangsi, where a band of semi-Christian fanatics 
took up arms in 1850, led by a man who arrogated to himself the title 
of T‘ien Wang, or prince of Heaven. This rebellion, which soon assumed 
an entirely un-Christian aspect, gradually attained formidable dimensions 
and involved the whole of Central China. It lasted through the whole 
of the succeeding reign of Hsien Féng (1851-61) and was not finally 
suppressed until 1865. 

Meanwhile the second Foreign War broke out in 1856 and resulted in 
the treaties of Tientsin in 1858 and of Peking in 1860. More treaty-ports 


87 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


were opened to foreign trade and the foreign powers received the right 
to establish legations in Peking. The reign of T‘ung Chih (1862-74) 
was a period of restoration ; but civil and foreign wars had by this time 
sapped the power of the Manchus and the disruption of the dynasty after 
the death of T‘ung Chih was only delayed by the strong personality of a 
woman, The Emperor Kuang Hsii (1875-1908) ascended the throne as 
a child and the real power was vested in Tz‘i Hsi, the famous Empress- 
Dowager, who came to be familiarly known as “ the old Buddha.’’ The 
final scenes of the Manchu downfall are still fresh in our memories. 

Kuang Hsii and Tz’i Hsi died on successive days in November, 1908 ; 
and another child Emperor, Hsiian T‘ung, was placed on the throne, 
with Prince Shun, a Manchu reactionary, as regent. But a movement 
in favour of a republic had already begun; it was now successful in the 
south and in the beginning of 1912 Sun Yat Sen was proclaimed President. 
The north, however, remained loyal to the Manchus and civil war seemed 
inevitable; but Yiian Shih-k‘ai averted this calamity by a settlement 
which involved the abdication of the Manchu Emperor and the establish- 
ment of the republic with Yiian himself as President. It is well known 
that Yiian contemplated the eventual seizure of the throne, but death 
put an end to his ambitions and the Chinese Republic remains in being. 

The reign of Chia Ch‘ing (1796-1820) is not remarkable for any ceramic 
progress. To a certain extent the potters maintained the Ch‘ien Lung 
standard of manufacture ; but the art had now passed its maturity and 
in the absence of any new development it tended definitely to decline. 
Were it not for the reign-mark, it would be no easy matter to differentiate 
the Chia Ch‘ing porcelains from the later productions of the preceding 
reign. One could make a considerable list of the specimens on which 
this mark occurs—rice-bowls with dragon designs in coloured glazes, 
“ Peking ’’ medallion-bowls, vases with famille verte enamels, tea-dust 
monochromes, “‘ rice-grain ’’ porcelains, etc.—but they would add nothing 
fresh to what has been said in the last chapter. There are a few dated 
specimens in the British Museum which belong to this period. Two 
are blue and white of a commonplace kind : another has a thick brick-red 
ground (a heavily fluxed iron-red) with enamelled medallions; and 
another has the same colour outside and a mottled brownish black enamel 
within. In the same collection there is a flattened circular box decorated 
with scroll designs in pale underglaze blue over which are gilt patterns, 
a style of decoration which Bushell! assigns to the Chia Ch‘ing period, 

1 O.C.A., p. 464, 
88 


NINETEENTH-CENTURY PORCELAIN 


For the rest we may be content to regard this reign for ceramic purposes 
as an extension of the Ch‘ien Lung. 

In the Tao Kuang period (1821-50) the decadence observed in the 
wares of the previous reign becomes more and more apparent. The 
porcelain material shows a marked degeneration in quality; the body is 
chalky and coarse in grain; and the glaze, which is bubbly, has that 
muslin-like texture which characterises the coarser Japanese wares, and 
an exaggerated oily sheen. Such is the common ware of the period, and 
its inferiority is emphasised by a few finer types which were still made, 
the last flicker of an art on the point of extinction. Some, indeed, of 
the Imperial wares of the time are worthy of a place in collectors’ cabinets, 
and others have enough character at any rate to call for discussion. The 
Peking medallion-bowls, for instance, are still of high quality, and they 
often differ from those with the marks of earlier reigns in having under- 
glaze blue designs in their interiors. The enamelled decoration, too, 
is carefully and conscientiously executed in a characteristic style in which 
translucent and opaque enamels are blended. These mixed enamels, 
though rather sickly in bulk, are often handled with considerable delicacy, 
and there are Tao Kuang rice-bowls decorated with them which would 
not discredit any Ch‘ien Lung collection. Among the colours used one 
notices a thin and very lustrous greenish wash: it is effectively used, 
for instance, where water is depicted ; and a similar lustrous wash appears 
on a particular type of porcelain, the date of which has been the subject 
of much discussion. Quite a number of specimens of this ware are in 
existence, bowls and saucer-shaped dishes, and perhaps they all belong 
to one or two services made for Imperial use. They are faintly engraved 
with the usual Imperial design of five-clawed dragons pursuing pearls 
among clouds, but the engraving is covered with a decoration of large 
fruit and foliage in thin green, yellow and aubergine glazes in a ground 
of greenish white which has the peculiar lustre above described. The 
mark is usually that of the K‘ang Hsi period, but the ware—in many 
specimens, at any rate—is far more like that of the Tao Kuang. A fine 
example in the Joshua Collection (Plate 67, Fig. 1) has the unusual mark 
Ch‘u hsiu kung chih (made for the palace where elegance is stored) which is 
evidently a palace hall-mark. 

Hall-marks! are frequent on the early 19th-century porcelain, some 
of them evidently referring to halls or pavilions in the Imperial precincts, 
others to the workshops of manufacturers or decorators, A typical 

1 See p. 142. 
89 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


instance is the well-known mark of the Shén-té Hall. It appears on a 
variety of porcelains, some of high quality, e.g. a bowl delicately painted 
in the mixed enamels of the period, a vase with opaque lavender-blue 
ground and Imperial dragon designs in colour in the British Museum 
(Plate 68), and a bowl decorated with black lacquer in the David Collec- 
tion. This last specimen has the shape and finish of a Ming bowl, but 
the style of the lacquer is frankly modern. There are other specimens 
which show that one of the specialities of this factory was imitation of 
older wares, notably two pieces in the British Museum. One of these 
is a blue and white bowl, of which the paste, glaze, design and blue are 
excellent reproductions of the Ming; and the other is a dish’ painted, 
in the style and colouring of the late Ming “‘ red and green family,” well 
enough to deceive, were it not for the mark which states that the dish 
is an ‘‘ antique made at the Shén-té Hall.” This dish has the deeply 
channelled base-rim which one sometimes sees on K‘ang Hsi porcelains, and 
so good is the ware that it has been stoutly maintained that the mark must 
at least be of the K‘ang Hsi period. The other specimens, however, have 
manifestly Tao Kuang characteristics, and one in the Hippisley? Collection 
clinches the matter, as it is inscribed with a poem written by Tao Kuang 
himself, 

Other Tao Kuang enamelled wares revive the Yung Chéng style of 
painting in underglaze blue washed over with pale transparent enamels ; 
and there is a rather coarse kind of ware with famille rose decoration on 
a celadon green glaze which bears the mark of the period. There were, 
of course, blue-and-whites and monochromes made at this time; but they 
have no features worthy of notice, if we except certain small dishes, 
boxes, brush-pots and the like which have deeply carved designs in the 
manner of the red Peking lacquer. These are usually covered with opaque 
bluish green, yellow or red enamels (sometimes they are left in the biscuit 
state) ; and, as they bear the names of makers,’ they are probably the 
work of some individual factory. 

It may be added that some of the snuff-bottles made at this time are 
of very high quality; but we propose to deal with the snuff-bottles in 
another place. 

The activities at Ching-t€ Chén were rudely interrupted in the reign 
of Hsien Féng (1851-61) by the T‘ai P‘ing rebellion. In 1853 the town 
itself was taken and the Imperial factory burnt to the ground. . The few 

1 B.M. Guide, Fig. 154. * Catalogue, No. 367. 
3 Wang Ping-jung and Wang Tso-t‘ing. See p. 147. 


go 


NINETEENTH-CENTURY PORCELAIN 


specimens which bear the mark of this period are not distinguishable 
from the mediocre work of the preceding reign. In the reign of T‘ung 
Chih (1862-73), on the expulsion of the rebels from Kiangsi by the 
celebrated viceroy, Li Hung-chang, the Imperial factory was rebuilt. 
This took place in 1864, and we have a list of the palace wares which was 
dated in the same year. This list has considerable interest in that it gives 
us an insight into Chinese shapes and designs, even if they are for the 
most part borrowed from the porcelain of previous periods. Our only 
fear is that such a list will raise undue expectations of the T‘ung Chih 
wares ; for actual dated examples are for the most part of quite indifferent 
quality. 


LIST OF IMPERIAL PORCELAINS SUPPLIED IN 
THE THIRD YEAR OF T‘UNG CHIH (1864) 


(rt) Quadrangular vases with apricot medallions and two tubular handles 
with Chiin glaze. 
(2) Vases of the same form with Ko glaze. 
(3) Quadrangular vases with the Eight Trigrams (pa kua) and Ko 
glaze. 
(4) Vases in the form of jade ewers with red (chi hung) glaze. 
(5) Vases of the same form, with blue and white decoration and raised 
borders. 
(6) Vases of the same form with blue and white decoration with 
balcony. 
(7) Paper-beater vases with the t‘ai chi symbol and the glaze of the 
' Imperial factory decorated in colours. (The tat chi symbol is 
the yin-yang: see p. 131.) 
(8) Sky-blue quadrangular vases with elephant symbol of great peace 
(apparently vases with elephant-head handles). 
(9) Medium-sized bowls with dragons in aubergine brown (tzi). 
(10) Medium-sized bowls with chi hung glaze. 
(11) Large bowls with Indian lotus in blue. 
(12) Five-inch dishes (p‘an), similarly decorated. 
(13) Medium-sized bowls with storks and the Eight Trigrams. 
(14) Wine-cups with narcissus flowers in enamels. 
(15) Wine-cups with spreading rim painted with dragons in red. 
(16) Dishes (p‘an) a foot in diameter decorated in blue with a pair of 
dragons filling the surface. 


gi 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


(17) Soup-bowls with incised dragons under a dark yellow glaze. 

(18) Medium-sized bowls, barrel-shaped, with dragons engraved under 
a yellow glaze. 

(19) Yellow tea-cups. 

(20) Medium-sized bowls with dragons engraved under a yellow glaze. 

(21) Medium-sized bowls with the three fruits in groups painted in blue. 

(22) Soup-bowls with expanding rim and dragons incised under yellow 
glaze. 

(23) Six-inch bowls with a pair of dragons in blue. 

(24) One-foot dishes painted in blue with silkworm scrolls and longevity 
characters, 

(25) Tea-cups decorated in blue with olea fragrans flowers (mu hsi). 

(26) Medium-sized bowls with precious lotus in enamel colours. 

(27) Tea-cups with white bamboo on a painted red ground. 

(28) Six-inch dishes painted in blue with the “ three friends ”’ and figure 
subjects. 

(29) Tea-dishes (ch‘a p‘an) with a pair of dragons in blue. 

(30) Six-inch dishes with green dragons on a ground of engraved water- 
pattern painted in colours. 

(31) One-foot dishes painted in blue with archaic phcenixes (k‘uei féng). 

(32) Nine-inch dishes with blue ground and dragons in clouds painted 
in yellow. 

(33) Medium-sized bowls with pure white glaze and ruby-red pheenix 
medallions. 

(34) Tea-cups with dragons and clouds painted in yellow in a blue ground. 

(35) Six-inch dishes with red (chi hung) glaze. 

(36) Medium-sized bowls with deep violet-blue (chi ch‘ing) glaze. 

(37) Nine-inch dishes with chi hung glaze. 

(38) Soup-bowls, barrel-shaped, with lustrous brown glaze. 

(39) Medium-sized bowls with red phcenix medallions in a celadon (tung 
ch‘ing) glaze. 

(40) Nine-inch dishes with silkworm scrolls and ju-i ornament in enamel 
colours. 

(41) Tea-cups enamelled in colours with mandarin ducks and lotus flowers. 

(42) Tea-bowls (ch’a wan) with chi ch‘ing glaze. 

(43) Tea-bowls decorated in colours with the pa pao (the Eight Precious 
Things : see p. 137). 

(44) Large bowls with the Eight Immortals in blue on red enamelled 
waves. 


92 


NINETEENTH-CENTURY PORCELAIN 


(45) Medium-sized bowls, blue and white inside, and with coloured lotus 
flowers outside. 

(46) Bowls with the Eight Buddhist symbols (pa chi hsiang : see p. 127). 

(47) Bowls with green designs and peach-yellow ground. 

(48) Five-inch dishes with purple and green dragons in a yellow ground. 

(49) Three-inch platters with similar ornament. 

(50) Soup-bowls of the fourth size with yellow glaze. 

(51) Five-inch dishes with phcenixes in clouds. 

(52) Medium-sized bowls with dragons and phenixes among flowers 
in coloured enamels. 

(53) Four-inch platters (tieh) with purple and green dragons in yellow 
ground, 

(54) Nine-inch dishes painted in colours with the Eight Buddhist symbols 
among flowers. 

(55) Large bowls painted in colours with archaic phcenixes (k‘uei féng) 
among flowers. 


The chief interest which collectors have in the wares of the Kuang Hsii 
and Hsiian T‘ung periods is to avoid them. This is usually a simple feat, 
for in spite of their apocryphal K‘ang Hsi and Ch‘ien Lung marks they 
are for the most part betrayed by inferior material and weak designs. 
There are, however, some carefully made specimens which give the collector 
pause, e.g. some of the better of the modern famille noire and biscuit- 
enamelled pieces, and a few of the sang-de-beuf, peach-bloom and apple- 
green porcelains. A note of warning may be heard in Scherzer’s account 
of his observations at Ching-té Chén in 1882.1 The material of the Imperial 
wares, he tells us, was still carefully refined and of superior character and 
the decoration executed by the most skilful craftsmen. “‘ Every piece 
which leaves the Imperial factory is made exactly according to the design 
sent from the Imperial household ; and I believe it would tax the most 
practised expert to discover the smallest difference between two pieces— 
as, for example, two bowls with green or aubergine dragons in a yellow 
ground, the one made two hundred years ago and the other fresh from 
the kilns, if there were no reign-mark to help him.” Scherzer tells us that 
there was one family of potters of the name of Ho who made “ imitations 
of sang-de-beuf red wares: but the glazes were generally too thick and the 
colour uneven.’’ They were made on a rather coarse body of stoneware 
type and apparently there was no attempt to control the flow of the glaze 


ANOps cle: 


93 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


at the foot-rim. He calls this ware kun houng as distinct from the chi hung 
of the lang yao, and he is evidently referring to the modern red flambé. 
Turquoise, celadon, lustrous brown, mirror black, deep blue and crackled 
monochromes were also made, besides porcelain painted in underglaze 
blue and red and “‘ steatitic’’ wares. From this it would appear that 
something of their old cunning had been recovered by the Ching-té Chén 
potters at the end of the 19th century. But the ordinary trade goods which 
are still made in the old styles and furnished with old marks (mostly the 
K‘ang Hsi mark) will hardly deceive the rawest tyro. 

Among the few frankly modern porcelains of which collectors will desire 
a specimen, are those with a palace mark! of the famous Empress-Dowager. 
They are generally painted in mixed enamels and have some merit apart 
from their associations. Another modern porcelain which must be rare 
enough to be worth attention is that described in an article in the Connois- 
seur.? It was apparently made to the order of Yiian Shih-k‘ai when he 
was contemplating the seizure of the throne, and some of it bears the reign- 
name of Hung Hsien which Yiian evidently intended to assume. Early 
in 1916 Yiian apparently took over one of the former Imperial kilns at 
Ching-té Chén and gave orders for porcelain to be made for his personal 
use. Specimens of the ware are shown in the Connoisseur. It is painted in 
enamel colours in the style of the late Manchu Imperial wares, and like 
them it generally has a wash of bluish-green enamel on the base and inside 
the mouth ; and it bears various marks, viz. the reign-name Hung Hsien, 
the character kuan (Imperial) and the hall-mark Chii jén t'ang chih (made 
in the hall where benevolence abides). 


SNUFF-BOTTLES 


A place apart is usually reserved in collections for snuff-bottles, Indeed, 
there are some collectors who concentrate on these dainty little objects to 
the exclusion of all else ; and as their manufacture was not confined to any 
particular period, we have kept the subject for the end of this chapter. 

Tiny vases for holding drugs and pigments have been made in China 
since medieval times, and they are described by early writers as yao p‘ing 
or medicine vases, but the snuff-bottle proper belongs to the Ch‘ing dynasty 
and it would be difficult to find a specimen which could reasonably be 


1 Ta ya chat. See p. 147. 
2 By W.H. Adgey-Edgar, October, 1923. The hall-mark Chii jén t‘ang chih is incorrectly 
read in this article. 


94 


NINETEENTH-CENTURY PORCELAIN 


ascribed to an earlier date than the 18th century. Tobacco was introduced 
into China from Manila in 1530, but we are not told when the habit of 
snuff-taking began; and we would hazard the conjecture that it was 
caught from the European traders about two centuries ago. This at any 
rate is the time when the manufacture of the little flask-shaped bottles, 
fitted with spoon-stoppers for ladling out the snuff, became common. 
Since then the snuff-bottle has been a fashionable article, and the elegant 
Chinese usually carries one on his person and has one or two laid out on 
a table in his reception-room. 

They are not always made of porcelain. Jade and other hard stones and 
glass of various ingenious makes figure largely in collections of snuff-bottles; 
but for the moment we are concerned with those which were made at 
Ching-té Chén. The potters seem to have delighted in displaying their 
skill and ingenuity in their manufacture and many of them are veritable 
gems in porcelain. A good collection would illustrate in miniature the 
whole story of Ch‘ing porcelain. Monochromes such as the lang yao red, 
apple-green, clair de lune, lavender and celadon: painting in underglaze 
blue and red: enamelled decoration of all kinds both on the glaze and on 
the biscuit: moulded and incised decorations: intricate carving in relief 
and openwork: and modelling of quaint forms—human, animal, and 
vegetable—in the round would all be adequately represented, besides 
the various special types of porcelain, the glassy white, the ‘‘ crackled 
steatitic ’’ and the creamy Ting types. In addition there would be several 
kinds of decoration rarely seen on the larger wares, such as black enamel 
ground with underglaze blue designs reserved, decoration reserved in 
white in a black ground, marbled porcelain biscuit, etc. 

Marks earlier than Yung Chéng are unusual, but they range from this period 
onwards and many admirable specimens bear the reign-names of Chia 
Ch‘ing and Tao Kuang. There are besides many rough and crude little 
bottles which mostly belong to the first half of the 19th century. Such 
things were largely traded abroad and used as medicine bottles in Egypt 
and elsewhere. Indeed, the discovery of bottles of this kind in ancient 
Egyptian tombs, where they had doubtless been dropped by accident or 
design by Arab workmen, started the sensational theory that Chinese 
porcelain had found its way to Egypt in the days of the Pharaohs. The 
great antiquity of Chinese porcelain was thought to have been established 
by these finds, but the bubble was pricked by a sinologue who noticed 
that verses from a medieval poet were inscribed on these ancient articles, 
and a truly Pickwickian episode was abruptly terminated. 


95 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


Plate 69 shows a few typical specimens from the O. C. Raphael Collection, 
illustrating the variety of form and a few of the many kinds of decoration 
used, besides the ulterior meaning of the designs. Fig. 8 is a plain vase 
shape with “ robin’s egg” glaze. Fig. 7 is of creamy white porcelain of 
Ting type carved like ivory with figures of the Eighteen Lohan. Fig. 9 
is white porcelain deeply carved in relief and openwork with nine lions 
sporting with balls of brocade (chiu shih t‘ung chii), a rebus design which 
connotes the ideal family of “‘ nine sons living together.” The gourd 
(Fig. 1) symbolises longevity and the finger citron (Fig. 4) happiness. 
In fact these perfect little articles are as purposeful in their designs as 
they are ingenious in their construction. 


96 


CHAPTER X 


EUROPEAN INFLUENCES ON 
CHINESE PORCELAIN 


We have noticed from time to time the reactions of European intercourse 
with China on the porcelain manufacture. With the advance of the 18th 
century foreign influences became so strong that they demand something 
more than a passing notice. 

In spite of the proverbial exclusiveness of the Chinese and their distrust, 
not altogether unfounded, of the ‘‘ Western barbarian,’’ a few Europeans 
managed to penetrate the interior before the days of Treaty Ports, some 
reaching Peking itself and actually finding their way to Imperial favour. 

Matteo Ricci, who founded the Jesuit Missions in China, died at Peking 
in 1610, and, probably owing largely to the good name he left behind him, 
other Jesuits were able to pass the barriers which to most foreigners proved 
insurmountable. The passports of these men were their skill in mathematics 
and science, and one of them, Verbiest, was actually appointed to the Board 
of Astronomy and commanded to supervise the making of a new set of 
astronomical instruments in 1670. Gherardini and Belleville are reputed 
to have brought European methods of painting and drawing to the notice 
of the Chinese artists at Peking ; and in the reign of Ch‘ien Lung Castiglione 
and Attiret not only painted pictures for the Emperor but gave advice and 
assistance in architectural matters. 

European clocks and watches, French enamels and Venetian glass found 
their way to the Court through this intercourse, and we know that the 
Emperor and his suite delighted in these new-fangled articles. It has 
already been noted that the Mandarins at Ching-té Chén begged Pere 
d’Entrecolles to supply them with curious foreign designs which might be 
translated into porcelain for the delight of the Court ; and we see concrete 
evidence of this interchange of ideas in such specimens as bottles with 
wing handles modelled from Venetian glass, vases of Italian renaissance 
forms, puzzle jugs copied from Dutch Delft, and vases in the shape of a 
tree trunk with amorini at the foot. There are also figures of Europeans 
such as the well-known pair said to represent Louis XIV and his Queen, the 
group representing a man with his arm round a lady, and a number of 
Fukien white figures (see p. 106); but they are often so grotesque that we 
can only regard them as caricatures. Nor need we dwell on the obviously 
European shapes of the dinner, tea and coffee services, ewers and basins, 
jugs, salt-cellars, cruets, candlesticks, and the like, which would naturally 


97 = 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


be designed to suit the habits of the users. Again the unnecessarily 
complicated forms of the ornamental porcelain made for the export trade 
was due to a desire to tickle the foreigner’s fancy and had little influence 
on Chinese taste. 

The first signs of European influence in the actual decoration of the ware 
are observable in the late Ming porcelain, and they are more frequent, 
though still very uncommon, on the K‘ang Hsi porcelain. Armorial 
devices we can leave for the moment; but it is evident that occasionally 
the K‘ang Hsi blue and white painters had access to European drawings. 
Plates with a picture of Rotterdam besieged, a vase in the Lady Lever Art 
Gallery with European ladies disporting themselves on swings, the well- 
known covered cups with a picture of St. Louis surrounded by praying 
Chinese figures and inscribed L’EMPIRE DE LA VERTU ETEND 
JUSQU’AU BOUT DU MONDE, and the dish illustrated in Fig. 3 of 
Plate 29 are proof of this. But the most interesting specimens of this 
kind are the Jesuit china. Typical examples of this are a bowl and cup in 
the British Museum,! which are painted in underglaze blue with a crucifix 
enclosed by ornament of the ordinary Chinese kind. They are obviously 
of the K‘ang Hsi period and doubtless similar to the piece which inspired 
an interesting paragraph in the 1712 letter of Pére d’Entrecolles : “‘ From 
the debris at a large emporium they brought me a little plate which I 
treasure more than the finest porcelain made during the last thousand 
years. In the centre of the plate is painted a crucifix between the Virgin 
and St. John, and I am told that this kind of porcelain was shipped some- 
times to Japan, but that this commerce came to an end sixteen or seven- 
teen years ago. Apparently the Japanese Christians took advantage of 
this manufacture at the time of the persecution to obtain pictures of our 
mysteries, and these wares, mingled with others in the crates, eluded the 
vigilance of the enemies of our religion. This pious artifice was no doubt 
eventually discovered and rendered useless by more stringent investigation, 
and that is why the manufacture of this kind of ware has ceased at Ching- 
té Chén,”’ 

The Chinese, who are extremely tolerant in religious matters, would pro- 
bably have themselves taken no exception to this Christian decoration, but 
apparently it was not much used at Ching-té Chén. Had this kind of ware 
been freely made for the native Christians, the fact could not have well 
escaped the notice of Pére d’Entrecolles. In any case this early Jesuit 
china, rendered romantic by the story of the pious artifice, is very rarely 

1 See B.M. Guide, Figs. 160 and 162. 
98 


EUROPEAN INFLUENCES 


seen to-day; and collectors of curiosities consider themselves lucky to 
secure a specimen of a later type which has perhaps less claim to the title 
of Jesuit china. This is decorated in on-glaze enamels, probably at Canton, 
with Biblical subjects copied direct from European paintings and engravings: 
but the porcelain consists of tea and coffee and table wares of European 
form and it was doubtless intended for the European trade, It belongs, 
in fact, to a very large group of porcelains decorated by the Canton enamel- 
lers with all manner of European subjects both sacred and profane, which 
are often interesting and amusing but rarely beautiful. In many of these 
the Chinese copyist shows his proverbial patience, reproducing the European 
designs, with which he was evidently supplied by the merchants, with 
surprising exactitude. There are large dishes, for instance, on which an 
engraved design is copied line for line in black pencilling, so closely indeed 
as to look like a transfer-print. In others the interpretation is freer, and 
here the touch of the Oriental is apparent in the rendering of human faces 
and figures. There are services with European subjects painted in famille 
rose enamels of the Yung Chéng style, and these are much sought by 
collectors, especially in Holland; and quite a number of pieces are still 
to be seen with pictures of Dutch ships, views of famous anchorages such 
as that of Table Bay, besides subjects of topical interest in Europe such as 
John Law’s Bubble, the 1745 rebellion, John Wilkes, etc. Others again 
have borrowed their designs from satirical and sporting prints ; and there 
are punch-bowls with harvesting scenes inscribed with the name of the 
farmer who sent out the order and the date of the occasion, and with a 
hundred and one subjects. Two punch-bowls in the British Museum have 
views of the celebrated hongs at Canton with the flags of the various 
European trading companies, to remind us of the place where the Chinese 
and European traders met to deal with the orders for this and other kinds 
of goods (Plate 70, Fig. 3). 

But the largest and most important section of this group is composed of 
the armorial porcelain, Services emblazoned with coats-of-arms were very 
fashionable in Europe in the 18th century ; and so long as the European 
porcelain was in the experimental stage and costly to make, a large trade 
in this type of goods was carried on in China. It was, of course, necessary 
to send out drawings of the armorial bearings which were transmitted to 
the factories through the merchants at Canton. The Chinese had no 
difficulty in copying these designs and the rendering of the bearings and 
even of the tinctures will be found as a rule to be astonishingly exact. A 
displaced or inverted letter in the legends and mottoes occasionally betrays 


9 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


the Oriental copyist ; but considering the unfamiliar nature of the writing 
it is a wonder that mistakes of this kind are so few. The armorial services 
were executed at first at Ching-té Chén, and there are a few early K‘ang 
Hsi specimens decorated in underglaze blue alone. One of the earliest 
is a plate in the Lady Lever Art Gallery! which has a shield of arms 
inconspicuously placed in the midst of pure Chinese designs. The work 
at this time was evidently unfamiliar, for the armorial bearings are dis- 
tinctly orientalised. A large blue and white dish in the British Museum 
with the arms of Talbot marks a decided advance ; and in the later K‘ang 
Hsi specimens, decorated in famille verte enamels with or without underglaze 
blue, the armorial bearings seem quite at home, though the subsidiary 
decoration is still in pure Chinese taste. 

One of the interesting features of the armorial porcelain is the fact that 
much of it can be dated with accuracy from the heraldic bearings. It 
would, indeed, be possible—and it has been done with some success in 
the British Museum—to form a series of dated specimens of this kind 
ranging from the first years of the 18th century onwards to the i1gth. 
The earlier pieces at any rate would give us the clue to the dates of many 
kinds of Chinese decorations, particularly border patterns and subsidiary 
designs, 

Thus a plate in the British Museum dated 1702 has typical famille verte 
flowers: borders of red and gold scrolls and brocade patterns and the 
transition enamels (famille verte and famille rose combined) appear on several 
pieces which are datable to about 1720: the ‘‘ Chinese Imari” style is 
used on a plate which must have been made between 1711 and 1722; 
and the pencilled style of underglaze blue painting is common on specimens 
of the Yung Chéng period. 

It is evident that about the end of the K‘ang Hsi period much of this class 
of work was transferred from Ching-té Chén to Canton. Not that the 
porcelain itself was made at Canton. On the contrary, there is no evidence 
that any material of this quality was ever made in the Delta; and the 
white ware was regularly supplied by the Ching-té Chén manufacturers. 
But like the ‘‘ ruby-back ” services, it was enamelled in the Canton work- 
shops, and there is no lack of evidence that it was decorated by the very 
men who painted the “ ruby-back’’ porcelain. The same complicated 
diaper patterns, the designs of cocks and peonies, the typical floral sprays, 
the delicate gilt, or black and gilt, scroll borders are common to both on 
the Yung Chéng wares. From the Ch‘ien Lung period onwards, the sub- 

1 See Catalogue No. 134. 
100 


EUROPEAN INFLUENCES 


sidiary decoration! of the armorial porcelain becomes more and more 
Europeanised, and about the middle of the century the Chinese ornaments 
tend to be replaced by bouquets and floral sprays in the Meissen style. 
A little later we see the swags of flowers which figure on Bow and Bristol 
porcelains, laurel and husk festoons, sinuous borders of ribbon or dotted 
lines wreathed with flowers, French cornflower sprigs, blue and gilt Derby 
borders and the like, till there is little of the Oriental left except the paste 
and glaze. 

It is perhaps small wonder that uncritical eyes mistook this armorial ware 
for European and looked for European factories on which to father it. 
But a worse choice than Lowestoft could hardly have been made for this 
purpose, for the little Suffolk factory had not begun its career till 1751 
and it never made any true, hard-paste porcelain of the Chinese type. 
The true story of the ware is told by such documents as the two bills of 
lading exhibited in the British Museum for services made for Charles 
Peers in 1731,? which are addressed from Canton. With them are 
specimens of the actual goods supplied, one a plate pencilled in under- 
glaze blue with a parrot on a rock and flowering plants, and the other 
a plate enamelled with the arms of Peers and with panels of flowers in the 
border set in a diaper pattern. These interesting documents were given 
to the Museum by the present representative of the Peers family. 

Another plate in the same collection is vouched for by a similar bill 
from Canton in 1743: it has the arms of Okeover impaling Nicholl 
richly emblazoned* ; and finally there is a plate with arms of Chadwick 
and a border of Derby blue, which is inscribed Canton in China, 24th Jany, 
1791. In spite of a high protective duty? the Chinese armorial porcelain 


1 A study of the border patterns on Ch‘ien Lung armorial porcelain shows that the 
following were used at various dates: light feathery scrolls, gilt or in colours, rococo 
ornaments combined with floral patterns, large shell-like ornaments and scroll-edged 
frames of lattice diaper loosely strung together, in the first half of the period. More 
elaborate framework with similar motives interrupted by four peacocks and generally in 
black and gold, about 1740 to 1760: composite borders with diapers, symbols, flowers, 
and sometimes butterflies on specimens which range from 1765 to 1820. This last type 
of border was adapted by English factories as a surround for the well-known “ willow 
pattern,” which we may add is itself merely an adaptation of a Chinese landscape. 

2 See Country Life, May 20th, 1922. 3 Ibid. 

4 In 1803 it was proposed to reduce the import duty on Oriental porcelain by £59 8s. 6d. 
per cent. Such a reduction, which would have left a mere 50 per cent duty to be paid, 
was regarded with alarm by the Staffordshire potters. See F. Falkner, The Wood Family 
of Burslem, p. 67. 


IOI 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


continued to arrive in England in large quantities up to the first decades 
of the roth century; but by this time a satisfactory formula for English 
porcelain had been evolved in Staffordshire, and the home production 
was able to meet all the requirements of the market. 

The Dutch were among the largest importers of Oriental porcelain, 
both Chinese and Japanese, and the celebrated tin-enamelled pottery 
of Delft was powerfully influenced both in form and decoration by these 
Oriental importations. The same traders brought out Delft pottery to 
the East, either among their personal effects or as trade goods, and it 
is interesting to find that imitations of it were made both in China and 
Japan in the 18th century. Stranger still are the Chinese copies of the 
Delft ware with slightly Europeanised versions of Chinese designs. This 
phenomenon is illustrated by a supper-set in the British Museum which 
has semi-Oriental designs of this sort copied, mark and all, from a Delft 
model, 

On the other hand, the china-decorators in Holland and elsewhere in 
the early years of the 18th century, while European porcelain was still 
scarce and dear, were in the habit of practising their art on Oriental wares. 
The white porcelain of Fukien lent itself to this treatment; but failing 
that, white Ching-té Chén porcelain with engraved decoration or with 
slight designs in blue and red was pressed into this service. Some of 
the work of these chambrelans, or private enamellers, is well executed 
with colours and designs such as one sees on the Delft earthenware, but 
most of it is feeble in drawing and crude in colouring and the designs are 
largely imitative of the Kakiemon class of Japanese porcelain. Important 
exceptions are the rare pieces painted in black or red camaieu, heightened 
with gold, by the German Hausmdler such as Preussler, Bottengruber and 
de Wolfsbourg, who also painted on early Meissen and Vienna porcelain. 
Their work in the European baroque style is carefully done, and specimens 
of it are highly valued by collectors. In the middle of the 18th century, 
when porcelain was sent in large quantities to Canton to be decorated 
there for the foreign market, it was not difficult for the European traders 
to obtain pieces of Chinese porcelain “‘ in the white ”’ for their customers ; 
and we still find a number of such pieces which have been painted by 
Meissen, Chelsea and Worcester artists. ‘Some of them have been 
experimented on with transfer-prints at Battersea or Worcester. Occasion- 
ally, too, porcelain with partial decoration in underglaze blue found its 
way to Europe in the same manner. This is shown by two pieces in the 
British Museum, one a tea-pot with blue ground and white panels to 


I02 


EUROPEAN INFLUENCES 


which the decoration has never been added, and the other a vase with 
underglaze blue scrollwork, which must have been executed at Ching-té 
Chén, surrounding panels which were evidently painted in Germany. 
Other rather uncommon members of this group have designs cut by 
European lapidaries: they are generally monochrome-blue porcelains 
or the red stoneware of Yi-hsing. The latter is often polished, as well 
as engraved, in the manner of the red ware which was made by Bottger 
at Dresden. 

Finally there is the unpleasing type of clobbered porcelain. The ugly 
name of clobbering has been fitly given to the practice of adding super- 
fluous enamels to Chinese porcelain which was already adequately 
decorated in underglaze blue or red. A classic instance of this is a bottle 
in the British Museum painted in good style with three Chinese mythical 
animals in underglaze red. This simple but effective decoration has 
been ruined by a clobberer who has added murderous-looking European 
figures threatening the perfectly benevolent animals with clubs. But 
the chief victims of the clobberer are blue and white porcelains. One 
feels that there must have been a severe reaction from the fashion for 
blue and white, when the clobberer was encouraged, as he must have 
been, to trick out good K‘ang Hsi specimens with meaningless additions 
in red, green and yellow enamels. Not content with filling up every 
vacant space in the Chinese design with these barbarous daubs, he often 
added a garbled Chinese seal in red on the base to show that he had 
caught the true Oriental spirit. Yet such defacement was tolerated for 
quite a prolonged period in England; and, more discreditable still, a 
few English porcelain painters actually descended low enough to copy 
this hybrid stuff. 


103 


CHAPTER XI 


THE PORCELAIN OF FUKIEN 


Porcelain was made in several districts of China, but the native writers 
tell us little about it except that it was inferior to that of Ching-té Chén. 
In fact the only type of provincial ware, of which we have any considerable 
number of specimens, is that made at Té-hua (Tehwa), which is situated 
not many miles from Amoy in the province of Fukien. The European 
traders at Amoy made this ware familiar to our ancestors in the 17th and 
18th centuries, and the French distinguished it as blanc de Chine. It is 
a very attractive white porcelain, sometimes milk white, sometimes cream 
white and occasionally warmed with a rosy tinge. It is, moreover, glassy 
and translucent and the glaze has a soft melting appearance which has 
been aptly compared with that of milk jelly or blancmange. The body 
and glaze blend closely together, and it is not easy to say where the body 
ends and glaze begins. Such is the general appearance of the Fukien 
ware, but there are exceptional pieces of which the glaze has become 
crazed and stained by infiltration and these have almost the appearance 
of buff crackle. 

The early history of the Fukien porcelain was given in Wares of the Ming 
Dynasty, and it is only necessary to repeat here that the industry was in 
existence at the end of the Ming period. It is still in existence to-day, 
and an English missionary! writing in 1885 describes his own impressions 
of the busy district with ‘‘ pottery, pottery everywhere, in the fields, in 
the streets, in the shops.’”” We may add that the nature of the ware has 
undergone little change in the last three hundred years; and, as it is 
mostly white and with little decoration except moulded or applied reliefs 
and slight incised designs, it will always be difficult to distinguish the 
productions of the different periods. 

Most of the Fukien porcelain is of an ornamental or semi-ornamental 
kind, and the ware seems to have been specially suitable for moulded 
designs and figures. Some of the choicest specimens are figures, usually 
of deities or mythological beings, but also very human representations 
of ordinary mortals and among them Europeans. Animals and birds, 
too, play their part, hawks, cocks, dogs, and the Buddhist lions which 
are usually fitted with small tubes to carry joss-sticks. The semi- 
ornamental objects include incense-vases and incense-burners, boxes, 
libation cups shaped after bronze models or carved rhinoceros horn, 
wine-cups formed like flowers, various kinds of water-vessels, water 

1 Everyday Life in China, or Scenes in Fukien, by E. J. Dukes, London, 1885. 
104 


THE PORCELAIN OF FUKIEN 


droppers and other accessories of the writing-table, and occasionally 
vases. There are also teapots, wine-ewers and bowls, and more rarely 
plain cups and dishes ; and some little attempt seems to have been made 
to compete with the Ching-té Chén manufacturers in supplying the 
foreign market with useful wares for the table and domestic purposes. 
We know, for instance, of globular mugs with straight ribbed necks, 
cylindrical mugs, plain coffee cups and porringers which are so manifestly 
based on European forms that collectors have been tempted to ascribe 
them to European manufactories such as Meissen and Fulham. In this 
connection it is interesting to recall the account given (in 1712) by Pére 
d’Entrecolles of certain Ching-té Chén potters who transferred their plant 
to Fukien in the hope of making profits out of the Western traders at 
Amoy. The venture, however, was not successful. 

Some idea of the Fukien porcelain of the K‘ang Hsi period can be 
gathered from the Dresden Collection,? which includes quite a large 
series of the white cups, ornamental vessels and figures. But they only 
confirm the opinion that to distinguish the different periods of the ware 
is no easy matter. Both the milk-white and cream-white varieties are 
represented, and, though many of the specimens are of good quality, 
there are enough second-rate pieces to prove that quality alone cannot 
be regarded as a determining factor in dating the ware. Incidentally, 
it will be noticed that many of the figures of Kuan-yin and other deities 
have at some time been covered with oil gilding, which was applied over 
a black medium. Most of this covering has now disappeared, but traces 
of the black and occasionally of the gold are still visible. The old Fukien 
models can often be identified from the European porcelain of the early 
18th century, for the blanc de Chine was freely copied in the French 
factories of St. Cloud, Mennecy, and elsewhere, as well as at Meissen 
and in the early Bow and Chelsea wares of England. Teapots with panel 
designs in sunk relief, or with bodies shaped like fruits, and cups and 
bowls with sprigs of prunus in applied relief, reflect common Fukien types; 
and occasionally we find European figures which have been actually 
moulded from Fukien originals, a fact which is betrayed in one rare 
instance* by the mark of a Fukien potter appearing on the back. 


1 The stoneware made by Dwight of Fulham in the latter part of the 17th century 
sometimes has the same shapes, which are probably derived from silver, but there is no 
evidence that Dwight ever made porcelain. * See Zimmermann, op. cit., Plates 153-56. 

3 A figure of (?) Li Tung-pin made at Lowdin’s factory at Bristol in 1750: it has a mark 
on the back which apparently consists of a character read Let. 


105 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


As already implied, the decoration of the Fukien porcelain usually 
consists of moulded or applied reliefs, sometimes in sunk panels, and it 
is mostly of a simple nature, such as a sprig of prunus, a deer or horse, 
figures of Immortals or a band of stiff leaves. Incised ornament is also 
used, and very often it takes the form of a verse or aphorism in five or 
seven characters. But apart from these embellishments the vessels are 
generally moulded in ingenious and often very attractive shapes, derived 
from bronze or horn or natural objects such as flowers and leaves. Of 
the Fukien figures the most familiar is that of Kuan-yin. Indeed, one 
would say that there must have been a white Kuan-yin in every house 
in China. The story of Kuan-yin is told elsewhere, and she appears 
in many guises in Fukien porcelain. But as the Goddess of Mercy, and 
as Kuan-yin the maternal, with a child in her arms, she must have had 
countless devotees in China. Other favourite figures are Kuan Ti, god 
of war, Bodhidharma, the Taoist Immortals and the Twin Genii; and 
there are many others which make a similar appeal to religious sentiment 
or superstition. There are, besides, little groups representing scenes 
from romance, or fairy stories like that of Wang Chih and the game of 
checkers ; but perhaps the most interesting to the Western collector are 
those single figures and groups which represent Europeans in the East. 
There is a passage in the writings of one of the Jesuit missionaries in 16041 
which speaks of the delight taken by the Chinese in caricaturing European 
manners. Actors from Macao, we are told, caricatured the Portuguese 
“for the things which the Chinese hated, such as the wearing of short 
garments which seemed ridiculous, praying on beads by men in the 
temples with swords girded on them and kneeling on one knee, their 
quarrels with one another and combats, women going with men in 
company, and the like.” 

The Fukien potters are on the whole more complimentary. If their 
versions of the European are not exactly models of grace, they do not at 
any rate seem to aim at making him ridiculous. Indeed, in some cases 
they treat him with uncalled-for respect, placing him in a shrine which 
should have been occupied by a Buddha or on a kylin as though he were 
an Arhat. There are little figures of Dutch soldiers and men in civilian 
dress made in the best quality of the ware which seem to be honest attempts 
to represent the true character. One pair of such figures are thought to 
represent the Dutch envoys, Goya and De Keyser, who journeyed to 
Peking in 1655; but this, of course, is a mere conjecture. 

1 Purchas his Pilgrimes, Hakluyt, extra Series, Vol. XII, p. 482. 
106 


THE PORCELAIN OF FUKIEN 


In the early years of the 18th century when the European china painters 
had difficulty in finding home-made material for their work, the white 
Fukien ware offered a convenient medium; and we often meet to-day 
cups and bowls and other objects with the relief decoration touched with 
colour or the plain surface filled with painted designs. The European 
brushwork and enamels are generally recognisable by their style; but 
there are some pieces with sketchy floral ornament in green and red 
which might equally well be rough Oriental work. We know that the 
Fukien potters did occasionally indulge in enamelled decoration. There 
are pieces with typical late Ming enamels rather roughly executed, and 
Mr. Dukes! who visited the potteries about 1880, speaks of children, in 
the open air, painting cups; and again a late Chinese work? refers to the 
Té-hua porcelain in the following terms: ‘‘ When the glaze is white 
like jade, glossy and lustrous, rich and thick, with a reddish tinge, and 
the biscuit heavy, the ware is of first quality . . . enamelled specimens 
are second rate.” 

Various rules have been suggested for distinguishing modern Fukien 
ware from old. Greater opacity, a glazed base, etc., have been indicated 
as signs of modern work; but all these rules of thumb break down in 
practice and we can only judge the ware by its fineness of modelling, 
texture, and finish. Even so, it is doubtful if the most practised judges 
will be able to distinguish the really good modern specimens from the 
old. It is common knowledge that admirable figures made in quite recent 
times have been sold for large sums in Peking, and doubtless some of 
them have had equal success in Europe. On the other hand, a very good 
figure was recently shown by a London dealer who had bought it in China 
at a price which seemed only applicable to modern work; but it was so 
well modelled and of such good quality that one could easily have passed 
it as “‘ antique.”’ In fact, the only suspicious feature that it seemed to 
have was a square mark on the back with the characters Té-hua. 

Marks are not common on the Fukien ware and it is doubtful if the 
place-name was ever used in the earlier periods ; but we do find occasional 
makers’ names on 18th-century pieces, such as the seal on the back of 
the figure copied in 1750 at Bristol (see p. 105). A few of the potters’ 
names have been identified, e.g. Lai-kuan, Ho Chao-tsung, etc.; but 
it is always difficult to read the seals which are obscured by the thick 
glaze. Apocryphal Ming date-marks such as Hsiian Té and Ch‘éng Hua 
were sometimes used, and a fret, whorl or swastika are occasionally 

1 loc. cit. 2 Li t‘a k‘an k‘ao ku ou pien, published in 1877. 
107 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


seen under cups and libation bowls which belong to the early Ch‘ing 
period. 

There is a good series of Fukien porcelains in the British Museum and 
some exceptionally fine figures in the Salting Collection. The two pieces 
illustrated on Plates 75 and 49 are an admirable figure of Kuan-yin 
standing on a crayfish, and a brush-washer artistically modelled in the 
form of a lotus leaf on which are two frogs. 


108 


CHAPTER XII 


POTTERY OF THE CHING DYNASTY 


If we except the Canton and Yi-hsing stonewares, very little of the pottery 
made in China during the Ch‘ing dynasty has been seriously considered 
by collectors in this country. It is true that collectors of Ming and early 
wares are bound to take notice of certain types which pass current for 
Ming without much justification, Most of these have been discussed 
in the Wares of the Ming Dynasty. But apart from them the subject 
of Chinese pottery suffers from a neglect which is not confined to the 
Western world. We see much of it but know little about it, and the 
Chinese themselves have not condescended to enlighten us. Yet a glance 
at the Maritime Customs Reports and such books as Wells Williams’ 
Chinese Commercial Guide, which was published in 1863, show that pottery 
forms a considerable item of trade in the neighbourhood of almost every 
Treaty Port ; and occasionally we have a word about the industry from 
other sources. 

The high cost of freight makes it improbable that the distribution of 
this relatively cheap material, except in the case of a few popular wares, 
had a very wide radius. Each district has its potteries which provide 
tiles for its buildings and pots for everyday use, but it is unlikely that any 
of these wares travelled far unless the potteries happened to be near the 
ports or main waterways. We shall probably be near the mark if we look 
to the vicinity of the ports for the source of the miscellaneous Chinese 
wares which are found in India, the East Indies and to a less extent in 
Europe; and doubtless the same potteries which figure in the Customs 
Reports of the last sixty years provided wares of a similar nature during 
the whole period covered by this volume. 

Taking the coastal provinces in order from the South we hear of potteries 
in Kwangtung at Yamchow, near the treaty port Pakhoi, at Kiungchow 
in Hainan, at Yang-chiang (Yeungkong), in the Canton Delta, and by 
Swatow and Chaochowfu. A hint as to the nature of the ware made near 
Pakhoi in the middle of the 19th century is given in the Customs Reports.! 
“The ware comprises vases, incense-pots, bowls, teapots, plates, etc., 
or any domestic article in two shades of terra-cotta—light and dark— 
ornamented with appropriate figures and characters in Chinese style. . . . 
The glazed surface is produced by rubbing with wax and polishing with 
wood and pumice stone after baking.” 

The trade returns of the Canton Delta show that pottery was exported 

1 Maritime Customs Reports, 1892-1901, p. 422. 
109 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


from about a dozen ports on the east and west sides. Grotesque figures, 
incense burners and miscellaneous objects with buff pottery or stoneware 
body and patchy glazes of brown and yellow and occasionally turquoise 
blue and aubergine, ginger jars and the like, all of which come from this 
neighbourhood, are probably the output of various minor potteries. But 
the best known wares of the Delta are those made at Shekwan, near the 
great manufacturing town of Fatshan. This, the Canton stoneware, 
dates back beyond the Ch‘ing dynasty and was discussed in the Wares 
of the Ming Dynasty ; but, as stated there, early specimens are rare and 
exceptional, and the bulk of the Canton ware met in Europe and America 
is of comparatively modern date. 

Generally speaking the Canton stoneware is a hard-fired ware appearing 
dark brown at the base, but varying at times to pale yellowish grey or buff, 
and with a thick smooth flocculent glaze heavily mottled and dappled. 
The colour varies much, but it is often blue, flecked and streaked with 
grey-green or white over a substratum of olive-brown: again, it is green 
with grey and blue mottling and at times the brown tints predominate. 
Vases with these mottled ‘ heather-mixture ”’ glazes sometimes bear the 
seal-marks of potters such as Ko Ming-hsiang and Ko Yiian-hsiang, who 
appear to have lived in the 18th century. 

Another Canton type, which is often erroneously attributed to the Ming 
period and earlier, has a rich red flambé or a celadon-green glaze: the 
ware in this case is white and porcellanous, but liable to burn a deep 
brownish red in the exposed parts. It usually takes the form of ornamental 
objects, groups and figures. Other Kwangtung wares copying the old 
Chiin Chou glazes have been discussed in the Ming volume of this series, 
and we need not enlarge on them here. This early work was sufficiently 
appreciated to be copied at the Imperial factory at Ching-té Chén in the 
Yung Chéng period ;} and the ware was still in great demand in 1863? when 
the Shekwan potteries were supplying the Canton market with “ pots, 
dishes, and jars of every needed shape and size, some of the latter as large 
as hogsheads, glazed and unglazed, together with a large variety of imitation 
grotto work and figures for gardens, gallipots, little images, etc.” 

Extensive potteries exist at Fungkai, between Swatow and Chaochowfu, 
where there are beds of kaolin as well as of the commoner clays. The 
objects made here and doubtless exported from Swatow are described 
as “ pottery of every description, from common earthenware to finely 
finished articles with coloured glazes or enamels: cups for tea and wine, 

1 See p. 64. 2S. Wells Williams, The Chinese Commercial Guide, p. 13. 
110 


POTTERY OF THE CH‘ING DYNASTY 


bowls, dishes and plates, stoves of red terra-cotta, pierced plaques for 
windows, and immense stoneware jars holding 100 to 150 litres.”” Besides 
the earthenware, we are told that a course porcelain was made in large 
quantities in this district, 

Wares of a very similar nature, including ‘ dishes, rice-bowls, wine-cups, 
Saucers, spoons, preserve jars, wine bottles, etc., in common porcelain ”’ 
have long been an object of trade between Amoy, in Fukien, and Indo- 
China, the East Indies and India. Shih-ma and Tung-an Hsien in the 
immediate neighbourhood may have supplied the goods; and we may look 
to the factories by Swatow and Amoy for the origin of much of the coarse 
and archaic-looking blue and white and coloured ware, which is picked 
up to-day in India and the Eastern Archipelago and not infrequently 
passed off as antique. Amoy was of old a place of export for the white 
porcelain of Té-hua, and doubtless the same ware still comes into the 
market both here and at the port of Chitanchowfu. 

Ningpo in Chekiang still figures in the Consular Reports as exporting 
** china ware, fine’; but it is not clear where the ware is made. We need 
not dwell on the Yangtze ports of Kukiang, Wuhu and Nanking, all of which 
have from time to time traded largely in the porcelain of Ching-té Chén ; 
but the mention of Changsha in Hunan (on a tributary of the Yangtze 
beyond Hankow) as a distributing centre of ‘‘ fine porcelain’’ seems to 
point to a porcelain industry in Hunan. Shanghai has long exported the 
pottery made in Southern Kiangsu. This includes buff pottery bowls and 
incense-burners, etc., with opaque, minutely crackled, camellia-leaf green 
glaze for which the potteries at Kashan were noted in the 17th and 18th 
centuries, and the red and other-coloured stonewares of Yi-hsing, which 
were almost as well known in Europe at the end of the 17th century as 
the Ching-té Chén porcelain itself. 

Yi-hsing (Ihing) on the west side of the Great Lake has been celebrated 
for its potteries since the early part of the 16th century. The outlines of 
its ceramic history were sketched in the Wares of the Ming Dynasty and a 
brief reference to the subsequent productions is all that is needed 
here. The commonest type of Yi-hsing ware is an unglazed stoneware 
usually red, but also chocolate-brown, buff, drab, black-brown, and 


1 In The Wares of the Ming Dynasty, p. 161, a type of coarse porcelain, distinguished by 
an iron-red biscuit and accretions of sand and grit on the base, was discussed at some length 
and a Corean origin among others was suggested for it. It now transpires that this ware 
is known among Chinese dealers as Swatow ware. This statement is based on hearsay, 
but it is worth noting. 


Iit 


THE LATER GERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


sometimes speckled. It was decorated by moulding, applying stamped 
or moulded ornaments and engraving with a point: and, in later 
periods especially, it was often glazed or painted with famille rose enamels. 
All manner of objects, useful and ornamental, were made at Yi-hsing, but 
it is specially noted for its tea-wares ; and we may assume that Yi-hsing 
ware was first introduced into Europe with the beverage tea in the last 
half of the 17th century. Our ancestors called it ‘‘ buccaro ”’ as though it 
were in some way connected with the American-Indian ware of that name ; 
and among the first tea-wares made by European potters were close imita- 
tions of the so-called “‘ red buccaro.”” Judging from these copies and from 
the good series of Yi-hsing wares in the Dresden Collection,’ the early 
Ch‘ing types were cleverly and often fancifully shaped, resembling sections 
of trees with applied foliage and spouts and handles shaped like twigs, 
bundles of bamboo canes, fruits like the peach (Plate 76, Fig. 3) and 
citron, lotus seed-pods and leaves, birds and animals, etc.; or again they 
had the usual square, hexagonal, or rounded shapes with moulded designs 
borrowed from bronze or porcelain, or applied sprigs of prunus (Plate 76, 
Fig. 2), and even panels of openwork: others again are incised with 
various designs, including ornamental inscriptions which often exhibit 
much calligraphical skill. Potters’ marks and seals are freely used; but, 
as it has been a common practice to imitate the marks of the celebrated 
Ming potters, they are not always a safe guide. Indeed it is no easy 
matter to distinguish the modern Yi-hsing ware from the old, for the 
potters have lost little of their cunning and have faithfully adhered to the 
old designs. In these circumstances an historic collection like that in the 
Johanneum at Dresden? is of peculiar interest. 

The enamelled Yi-hsing wares are usually rather coarse and in the famille 
rose style. The glazed wares include imitations of the old Chiin Chou 
glazes which were discussed in our Ming volume. These date back to the 
early 17th century and were honoured by imitation at the Imperial porce- 
lain factories in the Yung Chéng period. There are also opaque enamels 
used as glazes to cover the whole surface, the most usual being a light 
bluish green which is sometimes specked with pink like the “* robin’s egg ”’ 
glaze: and there are streaky greenish glazes with a peculiar silken sheen, 
which appear on modern wares but are apt to be taken for early types. 

The Shantung ports were doubtless supplied by the numerous potteries 
in the Poshan and Yenchowfu districts. Poshan is best known for its 

1 See Zimmermann, op. cit., Plate 157. 
2 cf. C.P.P., Plate 50. 3 See p. 64. 
112 


POTTERY OF THE CH‘ING DYNASTY 


glass works, but it has had extensive potteries from early times, the 
decayed slate of the district providing excellent clay. A Government 
factory for glazed pottery was started there at the end of the last century. 
It produced “‘ vases of all shapes and dimensions, jars, flower-stands, 
flower-pots, etc., in two colours—a bluish grey and tea colour—perfect 
in form and glazing and looking like porcelain.” 

Earthenware appears among the exports of many of the coast towns of 
Chihli, but we know little of the local wares so listed. There are, however, 
large pottery centres still active such as those at Liu-li-chii near Peking, and 
at Tz‘ii Chou in the extreme south of the province. The Tz‘tt Chou wares 
with their creamy glaze and freely sketched designs in black and brown 
slip or again with graffiato ornament and designs cut out of a dark brown 
glaze, have been made for many centuries and are familiar to collectors 
of early Chinese wares. Their whole story, including the more modern 
developments, is told in the two previous volumes of this series. 

The potteries near Peking have supplied that great centre with tiles and 
earthenwares since the Ytian period. Their modern productions, as seen 
in an instructive collection of modern Chinese pottery in the Field Museum, 
Chicago, include pottery with incised designs filled with green, yellow and 
aubergine glazes in Ming style, and wares shaped like bronzes and with 
a shining green glaze. Another type is described by Bushell! as having 
a reddish-brown glaze of marked iridescence, shining with an infinity of 
metallic specks. A specimen of this kind in the British Museum, with 
formal ornament moulded in relief, has the mark of the Tao Kuang period. 
We understand, too, that monochrome vases with turquoise and aubergine 
glazes on a pottery body are still successfully made in the tileworks here, 
as they doubtless are elsewhere. 

It would be a long and useless task to review the pottery centres in the 
inland provinces as we have practically no information as to the character 
of their productions and, indeed, are not very likely to come in contact 
with them. There are, however, a few types which are fairly familiar in 
Europe, about which something must be said. 

The buff stoneware or pottery ornaments, vases and figures, with moulded 
designs and patches of turquoise, green, and sometimes aubergine glazes, 
seem to be common to many districts. They are apparently shipped from 
the Kwangtung and Fukien ports, and the modern series in the Field 
Museum shows that they are also made to-day (and doubtless have been 
for generations) at Ma-chuang, near T‘ai-yiian Fu, in Shansi. Other 

+ 0.C.A., p. 637. 
113 I 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


modern potteries at Yo Chou in Shensi make black painted ware in Tz‘tt 
Chou style and greyish white with sketchy designs in blue. 

Tiles, roof finials, and architectural ornaments in glazed pottery form a 
considerable group, in which may be included garden vases and large 
figures for external decoration made and decorated with similar materials. 
Many of these are skilfully modelled and form admirable ornaments when 
detached from their surroundings. They are habitually described as Ming, 
but it is well to remember that many of the buildings from which they have 
been taken were erected in the Manchu dynasty, such as those in the Yiian 
Ming Yiian, near Peking, built by Ch‘ien Lung with help from the Jesuits, 
Attiret and Castiglione. These, it well be noted, show the hand of the 
European in the designs of their mouldings. The pavilions here and the 
Temple of Heaven at Peking are mainly Manchu structures, and the Great 
Lama Temple at Peking was built in the early years of the Ch‘ing dynasty. 
And apart from comparatively recent foundations, many of the older 
buildings have undergone restorations within our present period. 


114 


CHAPTER XIII 


CHINESE CERAMIC SHAPES 


Looking through a collection of picked K‘ang Hsi porcelain, such as that 
given by Mr. Salting to the Victoria and Albert Museum, one is struck 
by the simple beauty of the wheel-made forms, especially of those pieces 
which are obviously in the pure native taste. We can leave aside for the 
moment the moulded forms which are necessarily more complex, and the 
vases and other ornamental objects made for the export trade which we 
know were often intentionally eccentric and bizarre. The splendid vases 
with famille noire decoration or with brocaded designs in famille verte 
enamels, the powder-blues and the finer blue-and-whites ring the changes 
on a comparatively small number of shapes. There is the yen yen vase with 
baluster body and tall neck with flaring mouth (Plate 13); the beautiful 
kuan-yin vase with slender ovoid body, short contracted neck and mouth 
slightly spreading (Plate 30) ; the rouleau or club-shaped vase, which the 
Chinese call chih ch‘ui p‘ing or paper-beater, with cylindrical body and 
straight, narrow neck with slightly spreading mouth (Plate 45); the 
wide ovoid jar, or potiche, with dome-shaped cover, and the slender ovoid 
jars with rounded caps; the slender beaker with straight sides, or with 
a swelling belt in the middle, and flaring mouth (Plate 31, Fig. 2); and 
a great variety of bottle shapes. Such are the chief wheel-made shapes 
of K‘ang Hsi vases, excluding vessels designed for special purposes which 
will be considered later; but all of them admit of variations, according 
to the mood and fancy of the potter. The club-shaped vase, for instance, 
varies much in the length and proportion of the body and it is sometimes 
attenuated to a positively daring extent. The bottle-shaped vase, which 
is perhaps the commonest of all, goes through innumerable minor changes, 
while preserving its distinctive K‘ang Hsi character. The bottle-shape 
is common to all periods, but there is an indefinable something about the 
K’ang Hsi bottle which the connoisseur recognises instinctively though 
he may find it difficult to explain. Whether it be the sprinkler with 
long tapering neck, the pear-shaped bottle, the globular bottle with 
straight neck, with or without a bulbous mouth, the bottle with de- 
pressed body and wide straight neck, the double gourd or the high- 
shouldered, dagoba-shaped bottle, it has always a sense of proportion, 
truth of potting and beauty of line which are unmistakable. Again, 
there is a typical Ch‘ien Lung bottle which has a globular body and 
wide straight neck, but it differs somehow from the K‘ang Hsi type. 
Perhaps it is that the neck is habitually shorter, giving the whole a 


II5 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


squatter appearance: but the difference, whatever it is, is manifest to 
the trained eye. 

If the genius of the K‘ang Hsi potter is manifest in his wheel-work, his 
manipulative skill is no less apparent in the handling of the difficult square 
and polygonal shapes. Most of the rounded vase-forms have their counter- 
parts in this kind of shape, which is built up with flat slabs of clay accurately 
cut and deftly fitted together. Great pains must be taken to make the 
joints true and firm and to keep the form so nicely balanced that it will 
not sink in the firing. Some of the square vases, with appropriate designs 
such as the flowers of the four seasons on the four sides, and the pear- 
shaped vases with flattened sides, are of great elegance. But in this kind of 
work and in the moulded pieces with many lobes and flutes, the shapes 
tend to become exuberant and florid. This is especially noticeable in the 
wares made for export, the shapes of which, inspired by eccentricity rather 
than good taste, are often needlessly complicated. Many of these are built 
up in tiers combining square and rounded forms ; the lines are disturbed 
by lobes and leaf-shaped mouldings, fantastic handles and excrescences 
of various kinds; the double gourd becomes triple; the bulbs on the necks 
of bottles are multiplied, and the yen yen vase culminates in a complete 
beaker which replaces the usual straight neck with flaring mouth. 

Among the objects designed for daily use there are bowls in great variety. 
The typical K‘ang Hsi bowl has rounded sides and lip gracefully spreading 
outwards, but this shape is varied by moulded flutings and octagonal, hexa- 
gonal and square designs. There are also deep scrap-bowls with straight 
sides and rounded covers, and wide-mouthed bowls with flanged rims on 
which rests a cover shaped like an inverted saucer. There are cups of 
several kinds, some tall and slender, others tiny bowl-shaped vessels to hold 
a sip of wine. They are usually without handles, and, though the cup with 
handle is an old Chinese institution, it rarely appears at this time except 
on services made for the foreign market. Special kinds of cups were used 
for ceremonial purposes, libation cups and marriage cups, but these are 
generally of fanciful forms, copied from bronze or horn and usually fitted 
with handles in the form of archaic dragons (Plates 33 and 34). The Chinese 
dish is usually saucer-shaped with rounded sides. Many of them are of 
large size, and in the K‘ang Hsi period they sometimes have a wide, grooved 
foot-rim. More ornamental forms are those of the sweetmeat dishes 
moulded in petals like an open lotus flower, and of the supper sets which 
are composed of a number of trays fitting together in the form of a circle, 
a hexagon, an octagon, or a flower. Dishes and plates with wide, flat rims 


116 


CHINESE CERAMIC SHAPES 


suitable for holding condiments are a type learnt from the European. 
Ewers are commonly of the graceful Persian form (hu p‘ing), with pear- 
shaped body and long, slender spout and handle (Plate 42) : but there are 
others more fancifully shaped, resembling peaches, melons, gourds, etc. ; 
and there are the tall syrup-ewers of cylindrical form with banded sides and 
tiara tops. There are teapots of simple globular shape, others with 
bamboo mouldings or shaped like lotus flowers, or kettle-shaped with 
square bodies and applied openwork panels, and many other ingenious 
designs. 

The regulation altar set consists of an incense-burner, usually a tripod 
bowl of bronze form, two pricket candlesticks, and two flower vases: and 
there is a smaller set comprising an incense burner or tazza-shaped bowl 
for flowers and a pair of lions fitted with tubes to hold incense-sticks. 
Vases are sometimes made in pairs, but the sets of five—three covered jars 
and two beakers—were only made for the European mantelpiece. 

Tall cylinders or square-sided tubes were used for holding arrows. They 
were often beautifully decorated and fitted into stands with railed tops. 
Vases for holding divination rods were shaped after the ancient jade ts‘ung 
used in the worship of Earth, with square bodies and round necks and 
bases. There are lanterns of round or angular shapes made of finely 
enamelled eggshell porcelain, sometimes with pierced panels ; and we read 
of more freakish light-holders moulded in the form of animals, such as 
the cat with eyes through which the light shone at night to scare the 
mice, 

There are elegantly pierced boxes and hanging vases for holding perfumed 
herbs to scent the room, and square straight-sided pots with openwork 
sides for similar use. Some of these with covered tops have been called 
cricket pots and butterfly cages, but their construction belies these names 
as the insects would inevitably escape through the perforations. The real 
pot for holding fighting crickets seems to have been more of the ginger- 
jar shape, and the perforations to admit the necessary amount of air were 
doubtless in the cover: but it would not be structurally impossible for 
the square covered bowl on Plate 53 to serve the purpose. 

Mention has been made of plaques and slabs of porcelain used for inlaying 
in screens and furniture. Porcelain was also used for making cool head- 
rests and hat-stands; and in both these cases the objects are hollow and 
capable of being filled with hot or cold water or perfumed herbs. For 
garden use there were the fish-bowls, often of monstrous size, which have 
already been described, and barrel-shaped seats. 


$7 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


The T‘ao shuo gives a long list of the porcelain forms made in the Ch‘ien 
Lung period. Many of them are, of course, common to the earlier and 
later reigns ; but some will be recognised as specialities of the Yung Chéng 
and Ch‘ien Lung periods, in particular those which are based on antique 
porcelains and bronzes. ‘‘ During these latter years,”” the passage runs,! 
‘the ancient ritual vessels, the tsun, let, yi, ting, yu, and chiio have all been 
reproduced in porcelain.” Of these the tsun are wine-jars of various 
shapes, the yu wine-jars with covers and arched handles, the ting cauldrons 
with three or four feet, and the chiio libation cups, often helmet-shaped, 
with three slender legs, ‘‘ For the library of the scholar there are provided 
the pallet (mo yen), the ink-rest, and the water-pot (shui ch‘éng) ; scroll- 
picture mounts, book-stands, and paper-weights: each adapted for its 
appropriate use. For the hair-pencil of Chung-shan there is made first 
the handle, then the bath, a bed for it to lie upon, a frame to hold it, and 
a cylinder vase (pi t‘ung) for ittostand upin. There are copies of the double 
stroked carved jade-seals of the Han dynasty, with handles fashioned like 
camels, tortoises, dragons or tigers, like linked rings, or tiles; besides 
boxes for the seal colour, square, round, and many sided. All these things 
are designed for the use of the clever writer.” 

The dainty little vessels for the writing-table are among the most delightful 
works of the Chinese potter, who lavished on them all his skill and 
artistry. The water droppers (shui ti) are of all kinds of curious shapes, 
floral and animal; and the brush washers (Asi) and dishes for holding 
water are ingeniously formed in the shape of lotus leaves and flowers, 
fruits and shells. The brush rest (pi ko) is commonly in the shape of 
a conventional range of hills, but it occurs in many other forms: see Plate 
73. There are, besides, boxes to hold the seals, ink-screens (yen p‘ing) 
behind which the ink is rubbed, miniature incense-burners and vessels to 
hold the incense and the incense-burning tools, and tiny vases for a single 
spray of flowers. [Illustrations of most of these objects will be seen on 
Plates 71 to 74. 

Vases for holding flowers were made, we are told, in sizes ranging from 
2 or 3 in. high up to 5 or 6 ft., and in various shapes, among which are 
named the tsun with flat sides and angles in relief, and the cylindrical vase 
shaped like a joint of bamboo; while others were square like a corn 
measure, and others cut in halves, as it were, and with back flattened so as 
to hang against a wall. 

There were round bowls like Buddhist alms-bowls with contracted mouth 

1 See Bushell, op. cit., p. 3. 
118 


CHINESE CERAMIC SHAPES 


to hold the pieces for the game of checkers : incense-burners (lu) ‘“‘ plaited 
in a hundred folds, or divided by partitions, with ears in the form of eels, 
of ropes or of halberds, some six-sided, others square, with straight legs 
or mounted upon pomegranates. Some are designed in the form of oranges, 
or of silk bags. They are coloured wax-yellow, tea-green, gold-brown, 
or the tint of old Lama books, a solace to the eyes in moments of leisure.” 

Objects of daily use included rice-spoons, tea-spoons, sets of chopsticks, 
candle-snuff receptacles, vinegar-pots, washing basins, oil-lamps and pricket 
candlesticks, flower-pots and saucers, round jars with small mouths (wéng) 
or with large mouths (po), plates, and bowls of all kinds. Among the 
personal objects mentioned are head-scratchers, hair-pins, ear-rings, covered 
boxes of all kinds to hold scents, cosmetics, etc., walking-stick handles and 
snuff-bottles. For the table service there were teapots and wine-vessels, 
bowls and dishes of innumerable forms, such as rice-bowls (wan), shallow 
bowls for soup, tea-bowls with saucer-shaped covers which were tilted 
slightly to allow the tea to pass. 

In conclusion we are told that, in accordance with the Ch‘ien Lung taste, 
for models of form good examples were chosen from the Ting Chou, 
Ju Chou, Kuan and Ko wares of the Sung dynasty, from the Hsiian Té, 
Ch‘éng Hua and Chia Ching porcelain of the Ming dynasty and from 
Fo-lang enamels. 

It is unnecessary to add that figures of all kinds were moulded in the round, 
but the subjects which they represent belong rather to the next chapter. 


119 


CHAPTER XIV 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE 
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 


The designs used to decorate the Ch‘ing porcelain are derived from silk 
brocades, pictures on silk and paper, book illustrations and the decoration on 
other ornamental substances such as carved wood, ivory and jade, ink- 
cakes, bronzes and lacquer. All these sources had been already tapped 
in the Ming dynasty and there must have been a large accumulation of 
classified designs ready to hand at Ching-té Chén in the form of pattern 
books. to say nothing of the existing specimens of old porcelain which 
could be used as models. 

It is hardly likely that we shall have the good luck to come across one of 
the actual pattern books, used, let us say, by the K‘ang Hsi potters: but 
there are a few general books of designs in the British Museum which might 
well have served the Chinese porcelain decorator, just as the Artist’s Vade 
Mecum, The Ladies’ Amusement, and the Compleat Drawing-Book served his 
fellows in the West. One such book entitled The Art of Drawing, in four 
Sections (hua chuan ssit chi) by Ting Kao contains rather more than 
a hundred figures of divinities and legendary beings, many of which 
occur in porcelain decoration and ceramic sculpture. Another similar 
work is the Hua chuan san chi (a collection of drawings in three volumes) ; 
and again there is the Chieh tzit yuan hua chuan,1 Drawing-book of the 
Mustard Seed Garden, by Li Li-wéng. 

It is known, too, that pictures of agriculture, rice-planting and seri- 
culture which occasionally appear on porcelain were taken direct from the 
Official Manuals published to promote these industries. Brocade designs 
are seen at every turn, whether it be on the sumptuous famille verte vases 
which are literally clothed in rich brocades with spaces cut out for panel 
decoration, or in the broad and narrow border patterns which might be 
strips of brocade cut off and applied to the porcelain. The bronze designs 
are apparent on many vessels modelled after bronze forms, especially in 
the Ch‘ien Lung period, and decorated with archaic dragon and pheenix 
patterns, ogre heads, meanders and stiff leaves. 

But in general, porcelain designs are classified by the Chinese under four 
comprehensive headings—jén wu, figure, or genre, subjects; shan shui, 
landscape; hua niao, nature subjects (lit. flowers and birds); and tsa hua, 
miscellaneous designs. The first, which includes figure subjects of all 


1 See F. Perzynski, Burlington Magazine, March, 1913, p. 310. 
I20 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


kinds, is by far the most intriguing to the European mind. Our curiosity 
is aroused by the strange scenes depicted, in which the actors, sometimes 
elegant and graceful figures, sometimes uncouth and even grotesque, 
live and move in a setting which is utterly foreign to the Western eye. 
Unfortunately it is not possible to satisfy this natural curiosity in many, 
perhaps the majority, of cases, for even the Chinese themselves can 
rarely give the true story of the scenes depicted on their wares. 

The Manchus were a race of warriors before too long enjoyment of 
the sweets of power sapped their virility; and the earlier wares of the 
dynasty were often decorated to suit their taste with scenes of combat 
and military pomp. The half legendary heroes of the Han dynasty and 
of the Three Kingdoms, the fights with bandits told in the Shui hu chuan 
of the Sung dynasty—the Chinese Knights of the Round Table and Robin 
Hoods—appear on the K‘ang Hsi famille verte. Again, a vase with military 
figures (wu p‘ing) is sometimes paired with another on which a civil 
procession is depicted (wén p‘ing). On other pieces historic persons 
and scenes are depicted—Yao with his cavalcade calling the Emperor 
Shun, like another Cincinnatus, from the plough: Su Wu, the faithful 
Han minister, tending cattle in captivity among the Hiung-nu; Chang 
Ch‘ien, another Han minister, whose travels have grown into legends, 
tracing the source of the Yellow River in the Milky Way and reaching 
the realms of the Weaving Maiden herself! ; the boy Ssii-ma Kuang 
liberating his drowning companion from a huge water-kong, by breaking 
its side; the meeting of Ming Huang and the celebrated beauty Yang 
Kuei-fei? ; Hsi Shih, the Delilah of Fu Ch‘ai, a prince of Wu in the 5th 
century ; Chiang Tzii-ya, fishing on the river-bank; and Chu Mai-ch’én, 
the woodcutter who rose to be a minister, reading as he walks with a 
bundle of faggots on his back. 

There are appropriate designs to appeal to the man of letters :—symposia 
of literary personages, the Seven Worthies who met in the Bamboo Grove, 
and the Worthies of the Orchid Pavilion who set their cups floating down 
the ‘‘ nine-bend river.”’ Both were coteries of celebrated literati, poets 
and calligraphers, who lived the former in the 3rd and the latter in the 
4th century. Another favourite in this kind of decoration was the bibulous 
T‘ang poet Li T‘ai-po, who is represented gazing at the waterfalls of 
Szechwan, receiving menial ministrations from the Emperor and his 


2 See p. 131. 


2 This is the usual explanation given of the scene in which a young horseman is depicted 
meeting a beautiful lady in a chariot. 


I21I 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


court, or reclining in drunken slumber against a wine-jar. He also appears 
as one of the Eight Immortals of the Wine-cup (a subject which, like 
the Eight Taoist Immortals, is specially suited for octagonal bowls and 
vessels) or floating down a river in a log boat, book in hand and apparently 
regardless of danger, or again, like Chou Mao-shu, contemplating his 
favourite lotus flowers. Another poet who figures with his special flower 
is T‘ao Yiian-ming, the lover of the chrysanthemum. Again, the State 
examinations made literary success the key to official preferment, and 
direct or indirect allusions to this circumstance can be found in many of 
the porcelain designs. The literary aspirant is seen standing on a 
dragon’s head, implying that he is head of the list, and waving a branch 
of cassia, emblem of literary success, or dreaming of future honours, 
the dream issuing in a mist from his head. Other designs symbolical 
of literary success are described elsewhere in connection with the gods 
of literature. 

Poetry and romance provide many themes for the decorator. Sometimes 
the stories are told in a succession of scenes running round a vase or bowl, 
obviously tales of love and intrigue, though we can rarely give them a 
name. One such picture shows a lover scaling the garden wall to find 
his mistress, having thrown his boots over first; another shows a man 
spying from behind a screen on a pair of love-makers. It matters little 
if our curiosity remains unsatisfied as to the names of the actors in these 
scenes which are not peculiar to the Chinese. What matters is that the 
figures and their surroundings make admirable decoration. The Chinese 
costumes are highly picturesque—perhaps they appear particularly so 
to Western eyes from their unfamiliarity—and of all the figure designs 
which appear in ceramic decoration, there is none so charming as the 
graceful Chinese lady. The single figures standing by a vase of flowers, 
which occur so frequently on the export blue and white, doubtless became 
a trifle hackneyed, and when perfunctorily drawn they deserved the 
uncomplimentary name of “ long Elizas,’’ given them by the Dutch; 
but it would be a gratuitous insult to apply this term to the real mei jén 
(beautiful beings) of the Chinese which adorn some of the best of the 
vases and dishes of the K‘ang Hsi period. On these we see ladies engaged 
in domestic pursuits, or in scenes illustrating the Elegant Accomplish- 
ments of writing, drawing, music and checkers; with children in the 
garden or the courtyard; in bevies in the Imperial pleasure grounds ; 
gathering lotus on the lake at the annual Lotus Festival; or looking at 
the flowers in the garden by candle light. 


I22 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


Children, too, are rendered with a sympathetic touch in Chinese 
decoration, playing with animals and birds, enjoying games with kites 
and hobby-horses, disporting themselves in mock processions such as 
they have seen at the Dragon Boat Festival, dressed up as warriors and 
wearing ferocious monster masks, or even parodying the more staid occu- 
pations of their elders. 

Like ourselves, the Chinese are brought up on a host of stories, some 
historical and some legendary, some with a moral and some without ; 
and these are well represented on the porcelain. The Twenty-four 
Paragons of Filial Piety! and the Virtuous Heroines, separately supply 
quite a substantial number of designs; but occasionally we see a whole set 
extravagantly used up on a single piece, such as a large blue-and-white jar 
conveniently moulded with rows of petal-shaped compartments to receive 
them. Of the pure legends one of the best known is the story of Wang 
Chih, watching the spirits of the Pole Star playing checkers in a mountain 
retreat. One of them gave him a thing like a peach-stone to put in his 
mouth and he watched the game so long that, when he was bidden at last 
to go home, the wooden handle of his axe had mouldered into dust, and re- 
turning to his native village he found that his family and friends had long 
since perished. The game of checkers, wei ch‘i, is one of the “‘ elegant 
accomplishments ’’ of the Chinese ; and absorption in it is so commendable 
that they make a hero of the general, Hsieh An, who refused to allow the 
news of an important victory to disturb his game. 

But undoubtedly the largest stock of decorative motives is supplied by 
the religious and philosophic cults of China. The subject of Chinese 
religions is a complicated one, chiefly because the Chinese have always 
been a tolerant people. Provided a religion did not interfere with politics, 
it was permitted to run its course in China, and religious persecutions 
are rarer in Chinese history than perhaps in any other. It is true that 
Christianity was banned at one period of the 19th century, but that was 
because the Roman Catholic Church was mistaken for a secret society. 
The nearest approach to a State religion in China is Confucianism, which 
is, however, more of a philosophic doctrine than a religion, though it 
inculcates the very definitely religious observances of ancestor worship. 
Buddhism has had from time to time fervent supporters and fervent 
enemies among the ruling houses, and it has always had a very large 
following among the people. Taoism, which started as a pure and lofty 


1 For their individual stories see Mayers, Chinese Readers’ Manual ; and Wisdom of the 
East Series, Book of Filial Duty: 


123 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


religion, was submerged at an early date by a host of superstitions chiefly 
concerned with the cult of longevity; but as it appeals to the super- 
stitious natures of the people it has retained its hold on the Chinese. 
Generally speaking, Confucianism is the cult of the ruling caste and the 
educated Chinese, Buddhism and Taoism those of the mass of the people, 
and it should not be forgotten that Mohammedanism claims several 
millions of followers. But behind all these more or less definite cults 
there is a host of extravagant and childish superstitions, relics of a Nature 
worship which preceded all the formulated doctrines. The ignorant 
masses live surrounded by invisible powers, benignant spirits which must 
be courted and malignant demons which must be propitiated or repelled. 
They are in consequence the prey to every sort of charlatan, geomantist, 
exorcist, and dealer in magic and spells. All these beliefs and super- 
stitions are naturally reflected in the art of the country, and much of 
the porcelain decoration can only be interpreted in the light of religion 
and folklore. 

The teaching of Confucius with its high moral maxims and its neglect 
of the supernatural does not provide many themes for the artist. The 
great teacher himself is occasionally portrayed alone, as a seated, bearded 
figure in official robes and with a tasselled hat, or in company with Buddha 
and Laotse, the founder of the Taoist cult. Ancestor worship is respon- 
sible for the canonization of great men, such as Kuan Yii, a famous Han 
warrior who was eventually deified as god of war in 1594 under the name 
of Kuan Ti. He is a familiar figure in late Chinese porcelain, as a dignified 
personage with flowing beard, seated in full armour with his hand raised 
in a gesture of command, or on horseback attended by his squire, Chou 
Ts‘ang, who carries a halberd, and his son, Kuan P‘ing, or again with 
a book in his hand to show his regard for the pen as well as for the 
sword. 

The followers of Confucius would naturally include devotees of the 
gods of literature, the special property of the ruling classes, Chief 
of these is Wén Chang, the star-god of literature, who resides in the 
constellation of the Great Bear. He appears as a bearded dignitary in 
mandarin dress, seated with folded hands or standing with a ju-i sceptre 
in hand and a wreath or jewelled band in his head-dress. A more popular 
figure is the demon-faced K‘uei Hsing, who stands on the head of a 
fish-dragon holding a scroll or cake of ink in his left hand and brandishing 
a pencil-brush in his right (Plate 54, Fig. 1). A scholar who, in spite 
of his success in the State examinations, was refused office because of his 


124 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


unprepossessing appearance, he had thrown himself in despair into the 
Yangtse, but was miraculously rescued by a fish-dragon which carried 
him up to Heaven. The fish and the dragon are concerned in another 
familiar story which has to do with literary success. The salmon, or 
sturgeon, are said to attempt every year to leap up the falls of Lung-mén 
(the Dragon Gate), and any fish which succeeds in this feat is changed 
into a dragon. The story is taken as an allegory of the aspiring candidate 
for literary honours and forms an appropriate design for porcelain made 
for the use of the literati. 

Buddhism supplies many subjects both for the figure modeller and the 
porcelain decorator. Buddha himself is seen in many of his manifestations, 
standing on the lotus, seated in the teaching attitude, reclining in Nirvana, 
with the other members of the Buddhist Trinity, Manjusri and Saman- 
tabhadra, or in a purely Chinese group which represents his meeting with 
Confucius and Laotse. Manjusri is also represented riding on a lion 
and Samantabhadra on an elephant. 

Of the Bodhisattva, the most familiar figure is Kuan-yin, whose image 
must have existed in almost every house in China. There are several 
versions of this graceful figure and more than one explanation of its 
personality. One represents the Kuan-yin as a draped and hooded 
female figure enthroned, with her attributes—a dove and vase of nectar— 
beside her and two smaller attendant figures, Lung Nii (the dragon-maid) 
holding a pearl, and Chén Tsai, the comrade of her earthly adventures. 
This Kuan-yin is reputed to have been the daughter of a legendary king, 
Miao-chuang. According to the more orthodox story Kuan-yin is a 
Chinese version of the Buddhist Avalokitesvara, and as such she sometimes 
is shown according to the Indian tradition with eleven heads and many 
hands. But her most popular and pleasing manifestations are as Kuan-yin 
the Maternal, to whom childless women pray, and as the Goddess of 
Mercy. As the latter she stands on a cloud-base with robes flowing in 
the wind or is seated in contemplation on a rocky pedestal, a singularly 
gracious and beautiful figure. As the former she appears Madonna-like 
with a child in her arms, and it is said that the Japanese converts to 
Christianity in the 16th century actually adopted her as a Madonna and 
that the Jesuits in China made good use of the resemblance in their 
propaganda. 

There are other figures of similar import which are apt to be confused 
with Kuan-yin. Hariti, the Japanese Kichimojin, once a devourer of 
infants and afterwards converted by Buddha into their protector, is 


125 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


represented as a female holding a peach and nursing an infant whose 
hands are folded in prayer. Another is the ‘“‘ Goddess of Childbirth,” a 
seated lady with jewelled head-dress holding an infant with a ling chih 
fungus in its hand. 

The Arhats or Lohan, apostles of Buddha, are represented in groups 
or singly. Originally sixteen, their number was increased to eighteen in 
China by the addition of Pu-tai Ho-shang and Dharmatrata. The latter, 
a long-haired man who carries a vase and a fly-whisk in his hands and a 
bundle of books on his back, sits contemplating an image of Buddha. 
The former is one of the most popular Buddhist figures, the jolly monk 
with the hempen bag which contains all the “‘ precious things.”” He is 
represented as a laughing fat man, half nude, often surrounded by playful 
children. In Japan he is worshipped under the name of Hotei as the 
god of contentment, and in China he is regarded as Mi-lo Fo, the Maitreya 
or coming Buddha. 

Tamo, the Indian Bodhidharma, is another not uncommon figure in 
porcelain. The first Chinese patriarch, he is said to have come to Lo-yang 
in the beginning of the 6th century and to have remained in contemplation 
(“ the wall-gazing Brahmin ’’) for nine years. After his death the legend 
is that he returned to India wrapped in his shroud and carrying one 
shoe in his hand, the other being left behind in his tomb. He is generally 
represented in this guise or as crossing the sea to Japan on a reed. 

Apart from these and other personalities, such as the Deva kings who 
guard the Four Quarters of the Buddhist Heaven and the Judges and 
Guardians of the Buddhist Hell, there are numerous creatures and emblems 
which Buddhism has implanted in Chinese art. The Eight Happy Omens 
(pa chi hsiang) which were revealed on the sole of Buddha’s foot constantly 
appear in porcelain decoration, viz. lun, the wheel or chakra, sometimes 
replaced by the bell (chung) ; lo, the conch shell, an emblem of victory ; 
san, the State umbrella; kai, the canopy; hua, the (lotus) flower ; p‘ing, 
the vase ; yii, the pair of fishes, also an emblem of fertility and conjugal 
happiness; and ch‘ang, the angular knot, representing the entrails, an 
emblem of longevity. To these may be added the crossed dorjes or 
thunderbolts of Vajrapani, the leaf-shaped halo of flames which is often 
used as an ornamental design, sacred Sanskrit characters such as the 
formula om mane padme hum, and formal lotus designs. 

Among the animals associated with Buddhism are the elephant who 
carries the vase of sacred jewels, the white horse (pai ma) who brought 
the scriptures from India, the hare who offered himself as food to Buddha, 


126 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


and the Chinese lion, who, as the dog of Fo (Buddha), acts as guardian 
to the Buddhist temples or as a joss-stick holder on Buddhist altars. 

All these creatures are represented in ceramic sculpture and decoration, 
especially the lions, which are generally modelled in pairs—the female with 
a cub and the male with a ball of brocade—or painted singly and in groups 
playing with balls of brocade and holding the silken streamers in their 
jaws. To the Western eye the lion as represented in Chinese art is an 
absurd, grotesque creature. But he was not always so. In the earlier 
periods he bears a decided resemblance to the king of beasts, although 
the Chinese artists cannot have had many opportunities of studying him 





THE EIGHT BuppHIstT EMBLEMS (pa chi hsiang). 


in the flesh: but, even so, on a famous picture screen of the 5th century! 
he wears the badge of submission in the bell which hangs round his neck 
and he has already developed a tendency to playfulness.? In Buddhist 
art the king of beasts has surrendered, like Una’s lion, to the law of gentle- 
ness and allows himself to be led as the symbol of Buddha’s influence 
over the wild tribes of Asia. As time went on his docility and playfulness 
were exaggerated, and he became both in disposition and features more 
like a puppy than a lion. He is, in fact, scarcely distinguishable from the 
shih tzit k‘ou or lion dog, the Pekinese spaniel. The ball of brocade with 

1 By Lu T‘an-wei. See J. C. Ferguson, Outlines of Chinese Art, Chicago, 1918, p. 215. 

2 According to an appreciation of the picture by the Sung Emperor Shén Tsung the lion 


“is pleased with the appearance of his tail. Though fierce, yet he is gentle. Such playful- 
ness hung in the Main Hall has the effect of adding a guest to the festive board.”’ 


127 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


its streamers with which he plays, was perhaps originally the Buddhist 
jewel of the Law, the stone which grants every wish; and the tubes 
which are often fitted at the back or on the base of the porcelain lions 
were intended to hold sticks of incense for burning on the domestic altar. 
But if Buddhistic subjects are fairly numerous in Chinese decorative 
art, the motives inspired by Taoism are legion. The original teachings 
of Laotse, which urged abstraction from worldly cares as leading to the 
highest good, have no more to do with the Taoism of applied art than 
the teachings of Epicurus had to do with the cult of pleasure for which 
his later followers were proverbial. The Taoism of porcelain decoration 
is almost entirely concerned with the cult of longevity and the quest 
of the elixir of life which became the chief preoccupations of the later 
Taoists. Laotse becomes indistinguishable from Shou Lao, the god of 
longevity, who is represented as a venerable man with bald, protuberant 
forehead, riding on an ox or seated on a rocky platform in the Shou Shan 
(Hills of Longevity), holding a knotted staff in one hand with rolls of 
writing attached and a peach in the other and accompanied by his familiars, 
the white crane, the spotted deer and the tortoise. Mt. P’éng Lai and 
the other “‘ hills of longevity ’’ are in the Taoist Paradise, situated in the 
Blessed Islands somewhere in the Eastern sea. Glimpses of them are 
given in porcelain designs—the t‘ien t‘ang or heavenly pavilion appearing 
in the mist, Taoist saints and immortals crossing the waves by various 
supernatural conveyances on their way to the islands, the mountain 
landscapes themselves with the peculiar Taoist flora, the pine, bamboo, 
prunus, peach and ling chih fungus, all capable of prolonging life, and 
among these surroundings the many Taoist genii paying court to the 
God of Long Life. In the throng are the Eight Immortals, the Twin 
Genii, Hou Hsien Shéng, Hsi Wang Mu and her attendant fairies, 
Tung-fang So and others. 

The Eight Immortals (pa hsien), so familiar in ceramic designs, are but 
a few of the many hundreds of hsien or beings who have attained by 
various means to immortality. Their names are: 


(1) Chung-li Ch‘iian, or Han Chung-li, a fat man with bare abdomen, 
who holds a ling chih fungus and a fly-whisk or fan. 

(2) Lit Tung-pin, armed with a sword with which he slays evil spirits. 

(3) Li T‘ieh-kuai, Li with the iron crutch, a lame beggar with crutch 
and pilgrim’s gourd from which issue clouds and apparitions, 


1 The character ch‘iu (ball) has the same sound as ch‘iu (jewel). 
128 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


(4) Ts‘ao Kuo-chiu with winged hat and official robes and carrying a 
pair of castanets. 

(5) Lan Ts‘ai-ho, of uncertain sex, carrying a hoe and a basket of 
flowers,} 

(6) Chang Kuo Lao, with the magic mule, of which he keeps a picture 
folded up in his wallet. By spurting water on this he makes the 
beast materialise when required. His attributes are a fish-drum 
and a pair of rods. 

(7) Han Hsiang Tzti, a young man with a flute. 

(8) Ho Hsien Ku, a maiden who wears a cloak of mug-wort leaves and 
carries a lotus or a ladle. 


The Twin Genii of Union and Harmony (ho ho érh hsien) are a pair 
of ragged mendicants with smiling boyish faces, one of whom often 
carries a broom and the other a box containing blessings. They are 
frequently confused in Chinese art with the semi-Buddhist pair, Shih-té, 
who also carries a broom, and his companion Han-shan, the Japanese 
Jittoku and Kanzan. Hou Hsien Shéng (the Japanese Gama Sennin) is 
a wild-looking person whose familiar is a three-legged toad. He carries 
a string of “‘ cash ”’ in his hand, and is not distinguishable from Liu Hai, 
the denizen of the moon. 

Hsi Wang Mu is the Queen-Mother of the West, whose home is in the 
K‘un-lun mountains. Here the peach of longevity grows and here she 
received the Chou Emperor Mu Wang, who was brought thither by his 
famous Eight Horses. Another of the genii, Tung-fang So, obtained 
his immortality by stealing one of her peaches (Plate 40, Fig. 2). Hesi 
Wang Mu (Plate 66, Fig. 2) recalls Greek mythology by some of her 
attributes, the phoenix which resembles the peacock of Hera and her 
messengers, the blue-winged birds which suggest the doves of Aphrodite. 
She is usually accompanied by fair female attendants, one of whom 
carries a basket of peaches. 

Very like the attendant of Hsi Wang Mu is the Flower Fairy (Hua hsien), 
who carries a basket of flowers; and one could name many other super- 
natural beings of Taoist lore who figure occasionally in porcelain designs, 
such as the San Kuan, the three Ministers of Heaven, Earth, and Water, 
who are represented as seated figures in ceremonial attire each holding 


1 Not to be confused with Ma Ku, sister of the Soothsayer Wang Fang-p‘ing and herself 
a Taoist celebrity. She is represented as a graceful female figure carrying a hoe and a 
basket of flowers and accompanied by a lion. 


129 K 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


a tablet before his breast ; Wang Tzii-ch‘iao, who rides on a crane, playing 
a flute ; Ma Shih-huang, riding on a dragon; the hermit Huang An, whose 
steed is a tortoise; and Chang Chiu-ko, who transforms pieces cut from 
his garments into butterflies, 

The creatures specially associated with Taoism are the Eight Horses of 
Mu Wang, the spotted deer, crane and tortoise, and the toad and hare 
that pound the elixir of long life in the moon, There are numerous plants 
and trees which have the virtue of prolonging life, such as the cypress, 
and the pine of which the resin has great virtues : the white cranes are said 
to be the spirits of ancient pines, and pine-seeds promote longevity. The 
bamboo, prunus, pear, jujube, gourd and peach: the ling chih fungus and 
ginseng roots: the sweet flag and the chrysanthemum are all emblems of 
longevity. There are besides emblems such as the attributes of the Eight 
Immortals, the Swastika (wan), and the Ju-i sceptre which grants every 
wish. This last is often carried by divinities and hsien, and given to mortals 
as a birthday emblem and to brides. The head of the Ju-i sceptre, which 
is not unlike that of the ling chih, appears in ornamental borders and in 
conventional cloud forms carrying with it everywhere a note of good 
omen. We may add here the well-known border pattern of crested waves 
punctuated by conical rocks—the “rock of ages’’ pattern—which has 
reference to the sea-girt islands of the Taoist Paradise. 

Interwoven with the various religious motives already described are others 
which are explained as survivals of the many forms of primitive Nature 
worship. They are concerned with the sun, moon, stars, the sea and air, 
storms and pestilence, and the powers of light and darkness. The Sun 
is a disc in which is a three-legged bird, and it is probable that the pearl 
or disc which is for ever being pursued by cloud-bringing dragons was 
originally the orb of the sun. There is a Goddess of the Moon who is 
sometimes distinguished by a butterfly on her robes and a mirror in her 
right hand, sometimes as a beautiful lady holding a branch of peach or 
cherry and with the moon-disc beside her on which the moon-hare is at 
work with pestle and mortar. Liu Hai with his toad is another denizen 
of the moon and there is a cassia tree growing there which is an emblem 
of literary success.1 The signs of the Zodiac are represented by animals 
and the four quarters of the heaven have their emblems, viz. the azure 
dragon for the East, the white tiger for the West, the black tortoise for the 
North, and the red sun-bird for the South. There are numerous Star 
Gods—the Spirit of the North, the Star Gods of Literature who reside 

1 To “ pluck the cassia of the moon ”’ is to win a high place in the State examinations. 


130 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


in the Great Bear and the Three Star Gods of Longevity, Rank and 
Happiness (Shou Hsing, Lu Hsing and Fu Hsing). The last three occur 
frequently in decoration: the first in the guise of Shou Lao (see p. 128), the 
second in mandarin dress holding a Ju-i sceptre, and the third similarly 
clad and carrying a child on one arm who reaches out for a peach held in 
the other hand (Plate 13). The constellations themselves are depicted by 
small discs connected by straight lines. 

One of the star legends appropriated by the porcelain decorators is that 
of the Weaving Maiden (Chih Nii) and the Oxherd (Ch‘ien Niu), two lovers 
who are separated all the year save for one night when the “ magpies fill 
up the Milky Way and enable the Spinning Maiden to cross ”’ (Plate 68, 
Fig. 2). The legend of Chang Ch‘ien who explored the Milky Way and 
brought back the Weaving Maiden’s shuttle has already been mentioned. 
He is depicted floating down the Yellow River on a log boat with this trophy 
in his hand.! 

Among the powers of the air are : Féng Po (Lord of the Winds), a bearded 
man with winged hat, holding two flags like a signaller ; Yii Shih (Master 
of Rain), a bearded man with a sword in his right and a wine-cup in his 
left hand; Lei kung (Duke of Thunder), a winged demon with one foot 
on a flaming wheel, a dagger and an axe in his hands; and Tien mu 
(Mother of Lightning) a lady with a mirror in each hand. 

The demon-face of the t‘ao t’ieh ogre is borrowed from ancient bronzes ; 
and demons appear in corporate forms in certain scenes. They are usually 
being faithfully dealt with by some champion like Chung K‘uei, a fierce 
bearded man armed with a sword, or the Immortal Li Tung-pin; and 
there is the combat of the demons of the air and water which occasionally 
appears on porcelain. The battle takes place in front of the Golden Island 
temple in the Yangtse and is watched by interested 





oS =e RD 

spectators who are apparently mortal and Chinese. Sime =a 

The yin yang and pa kua are relics of doctrines far Se a 

older than any of the established religions. The mas rape 

former, a circle bisected by a wavy line, isan attempt == = 

to symbolise the duality of nature, the elements Of ome pact 
RIT 


male (yang) and female (yin), of light and darkness, 

heat and cold, and so on. The pa kua, eight 

trigrams, or combinations of three lines variously 

divided, hark back to the legendary Emperor Fu Hsi to whom these 

mystic signs were revealed on the back of a dragon horse (lung ma) which. 
1 See P. Yetts, Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society, 1922-23. 


131 


The yin yang between 
the pa kua. 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


rose from the Yellow River. From these he worked out a system which 
explained all the phenomena of Nature. 

The subject of Nature-worship and the mention of the mythical lung ma 
reminds us that the most important of all animals in Chinese art has yet 
to be considered. The dragon in one form or another is a constant feature 
of Chinese decoration. Whether derived from one of the saurians whose 
eggs were recently found in Mongolia, or from the crocodile and from the 
imagination, the dragon was important as the bringer of clouds and fertilis- 
ing rain. In early Chinese art he has a smooth lizard-like form with divided 
tail. This is the ch‘ih lung or mang, the archaic dragon of ancient bronzes 
and jades (Plate 33, Fig. 2). In this form he has survived on porcelain, 
but generally in archaistic designs. The typical dragon with horned head, 
bearded and scowling, scaly serpentine body and four feet armed with 
claws is reputed to have been made popular by the artist Chang Séng-yu 
in the 6th century. He is the emblem of the Emperor, and, indeed, the 
word dragon is almost synonymous with Imperial. During the last two 
dynasties the five-clawed dragon has been regarded as the Imperial 
insignia. In porcelain decoration dragons most usually are shown emerging 
from the sea or from clouds, surrounded by flame scrolls and in pursuit 
of a “ pearl’’ which is variously explained as the Buddhist jewel or the 
sun-disc. 

The emblem of the Empress is the phcenix, a mythical bird with head of 
a pheasant, beak of a swallow, long neck and flowing tail of an argus 
pheasant or a peacock, and long claws, It has a dual nature as implied by 
its name féng-huang, of which féng signifies the male and huang the female 
element. Like the dragon it has an archaic prototype in the k‘uei féng of 
ancient bronzes; and there is another mythical bird, the luan, which 
closely resembles it. 

Another creature of dual nature is the ch‘i lin (ch‘t being the male and 
lin the female), which has the body and legs of a deer, the head of a dragon, 
curled and bushy tail, and flame-like attributes on the shoulders. It is 
a creature of benignant import, whose appearance foreshadows the coming 
of a virtuous ruler. Its name, which has been anglicised as kylin, is con- 
stantly misapplied to the Buddhist lion, to which it has scarcely a super- 
ficial resemblance. Other mythical monsters are the hai shou or sea- 
monsters which might be mistaken for kylins, and the pi hsieh which 
resembles the lion. The Chinese lion (Plate 10) itself has already been 
discussed (p. 127). 

The tiger (hu) is the king of the Chinese animal world and bears the 


ra 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


character wang (prince) on his forehead. He is more familiar to the 
Chinese than the lion, and is represented in a more naturalistic shape, 
often associated with the bamboos which doubtless formed his wonted 
cover. He is lord of the western quarter of the universe, and in ancient 
Chinese lore he was regarded as a protector against evil spirits. The 
elephant (hsiang) we have seen to be one of the animals sacred to Buddha, 
but he also appears in Chinese art as the symbol of Peace. The spotted 
deer (Ju) is one of the familiars of the god of longevity, and deer in general 
are a motive which suggests the auspicious word lu (preferment). A 
celebrated picture known as the Hundred Deer has been utilised by the 
porcelain decorator. The horse (ma) is associated with the stories of the 
lung ma (see p. 131), the pai ma or white horse which carried the Buddhist 
sutra to China, and the Eight Horses of Mu Wang. There are also sea- 
horses which are depicted galloping over conventional waves in one familiar 
porcelain design (Plate 43, Fig. 3); and the horse occurs in a curious 
design, ridden by a monkey which is being pursued by a bee. The monkey 
is perhaps one of the motives with a literary significance, as its name hou 
has a homophone which means to “‘ expect office.’”” Rams (yang) are a 
symbol of Spring and the design of three rams suggests the return of 
Spring (Plate 26, Fig. 2). The tortoise is one of the many emblems of 
long life, and the squirrel appears in a familiar design climbing on a grape 
vine (Plate 49, Fig. 2). 

The fish (yi) has a name which sounds like yu (fertility), and a pair of 
fishes is not only one of the Buddhist emblems but a symbol of wedded 
happiness. Fish sporting among water plants has been a familiar design 
from Ming times onwards, and large fish leaping a waterfall have already 
been mentioned as emblems of literary success. 

Birds are rendered with great skill and charm by the porcelain painters. 
Some of them have a special significance, like the stork, the familiar of the 
God of Longevity, a pair of mandarin ducks which symbolise wedded 
happiness, magpies which suggest a happy meeting, etc. Again they are 
associated with certain plants and trees, storks or egrets with the lotus, 
sparrows or finches with the prunus, partridges or quails with millet, 
swallows with the willow, and the cock, the bird of fame, with the peony, 
the flower of riches and honours. Other bird designs are taken from well- 
known pictures, such as the Hundred Cranes, the Hundred Birds paying 
court to the Phenix, wild geese in marshy landscapes and a pair of pheasants 
on a rock beside a flowering peony and magnolia tree. 

The bat (fu) is not in itself a creature of surpassing beauty, and its frequent 


133 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


occurrence in Chinese ornament is due to the circumstances that its name 
has the same sound as fu (happiness). It is therefore a creature of good 
omen, especially when painted red, the colour of happiness. Five bats 
(Plate 51, Fig. 3) are used to symbolise the five specially desired forms of 
happiness—long life, riches, peace, love of virtue, and an end crowning the 
life. 

Insects, too, have their place in Chinese ornament. Grasses and insects 
and a cicada on a rock are designs which survived from Ming times: the 
bee and monkey have been mentioned already: and the butterfly (tieh) 
is aptly used in many designs. Its rebus-meaning, “‘to double,’’ is 
reason for its frequent occurrence in symbolical designs, as with the 
chrysanthemum and other flowers which suggest longevity, and its bright 
colours and dainty form lend themselves naturally to porcelain decoration. 
It occurs in brocade patterns of butterflies and flowers in a ground of 
dotted green, or in medallions (Plate 58, Fig. 2), or in the crowded design 
of the Hundred Butterflies. 

China is the Flowery Land and nowhere are flowers more appreciated 
or the value of floral decoration better understood. There is hardly 
a decorated piece of porcelain which has not a floral motive somewhere. 
It may be only a conventional floral scroll in the border, or a band of leaves, 
but in most cases flowers or trees play a prominent part in the design. 
The drawing of flowers and plants is as a rule naturalistic, but it is never 
of the copy-book order. The plants are growing, they bend gracefully 
in the breeze and they are full of “ life movement.”” None of their natural 
beauty of form or colour is lost in the hands of the Chinese decorator, 
and often on the superior Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung porcelains the 
floral motives are handled with the skill and freedom which could scarcely 
be surpassed on paper or silk. 

It seems pedantic to look for any reason, except the pure beauty of the 
subject, for the choice of this or that combination of flowers and trees. 
But Chinese decoration is in a sense pedantic. It nearly always has a 
symbolic meaning of some kind underlying it, but fortunately the inherent 
beauty of the floral designs remains unaffected by any academic arrange- 
ment of the details. What could be more charming than the four groups 
of season flowers, the tree peony for Spring, the lotus for Summer, the 
chrysanthemum for Autumn, and the prunus for Winter ¢ The combina- 
tion of pine, bamboo, and prunus is effective enough in itself, but it also 
suggests three friends who keep their smiles even in Winter, and further 
the Three Friends—Confucius, Buddha, and Laotse. There are special 


134 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


flowers assigned to each of the twelve months, and there is a design known 
as the Hundred Flowers which makes a vase appear like one great bouquet. 
There are numerous plants and trees which are supposed to possess the power 
to prolong life—the pine, bamboo, peach, prunus, willow, chrysanthemum, 
ling chih fungus, gourd, etc. The combination of the three fruits—peach, 
pomegranate and finger citron—symbolise the Three Abundances of 
Years, Sons, and Happiness; and the orange is regarded as a symbol of 
-good luck. 

Landscape is another forte of the Chinese painter, and the porcelain 
decorators made full use of its ornamental possibilities. Shan shui (moun- 
tains and rivers), the Chinese phrase for landscape, accurately describes 
most of the landscapes depicted on porcelain. Wild mountain scenes 
with waterfalls and streams, or the more sophisticated beauty spots such 
as the lake at Hangchow with its pavilions and bridges! or the Imperial 
pleasure grounds at Peking provide numerous themes. Sometimes the 
landscapes are peopled with figures—brigands and warriors in combat, 
sages enjoying the scenery, travellers arriving at a house in the hills, 
rustics at work, fishermen on the rivers, and so on. Ina few cases definite 
scenes of agriculture—rice growing, silk culture, etc.—are taken from 
manuals illustrating these industries; but more often the landscapes 
are simply derived from well-known pictures. The four seasons are repre- 
sented by appropriate landscapes, with blossoming fruit trees for Spring, 
snow storm for Winter, etc. 

Painting and calligraphy go hand in hand in China, and a few boldly 
written characters, stanzas of verse and even long inscriptions play a part 
in porcelain decoration. They are generally aphorisms or quotations from 
literature, but they sometimes have a direct reference to the painted 
designs which complete the decoration. Other inscriptions are of a religious 
nature, and these are sometimes in the sacred Sanskrit characters or in 
Arabic if written for the benefit of Mohammedans. 

Frequent allusions have been made to the symbolic meaning which under- 
lies so much of the porcelain decorations. Much of this is expressed in rebus 
fashion and can only be interpreted by reference to Chinese characters. 
A language with many characters and few sounds is necessarily full of 
homophones and apt to breed puns and plays upon words. One simple 
instance will be enough to show how the Chinese decorator made use of 


1 The much-discussed willow pattern of English pottery and porcelain is derived from 
one of these famous lake landscapes, and the poetical story which has been attached to it 
by certain imaginative writers is purely an afterthought, 


135 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


this feature of his language. A vase is covered with a design of red (hung) 
bats (fu) flying among cloud scrolls. This can be interpreted as the phrase 
hung fu chi t'ien which means “‘ great (hung) happiness (fu) reaching to 
heaven.’’ It is easy to see how all sorts of good wishes for riches, honours, 
literary success, long life, fertility, happiness, etc., can be embodied by 
such means in the decoration of a bowl or vase. Instances could be 
multiplied, but it would require a dictionary of ‘‘ phrase and fable” to 
exhaust the subject and half a dozen additional examples would be of 
little use. 

But apart from this obscure symbolism, there is a host of direct symbols 
and devices which are prominent in Chinese decoration and at the same 
time very intriguing to the uninitiated. They usually belong to certain 
well-known categories such as the Eight Musical Instruments, the Twelve 

: Embroidery Ornaments, the Eight Buddhist Emblems, the 
Seven Paraphernalia of the Universal Sovereign, the Attri- 

S butes of the Eight Immortals, and the Eight Precious Things. 
Double peach Besides these there is a comprehensive group of vases, im- 
and bat. plements, and symbols known as the Hundred Antiques 
(po ku) which occur frequently in panel decoration; and 

there are a few miscellaneous emblems such as the yin yang 

and pa kua (see p. 131), the Swastika, the Emblems of the 

Pi ting ju-i. Four Accomplishments (viz. a lute, a checkers board, a pair 

of books and a picture scroll), a pair of peaches (for longevity) 
and a combination of pencil-brush (pi), cake of ink (ting), and a ju-i sceptre 
which together form the rebus pi ting ju-i (‘‘ may things be arranged as 
your wish ’”’), 

The Eight Musical Instruments (pa yin) comprise the sounding stone 
(ch‘ing), bell, lute, flute, box with hammer inside, drum, reed organ and 
ocarina. 

The Twelve Embroidery Ornaments (shih érh chang) are the sun-disc, 
moon, a constellation, mountains, dragons, pheasant, two temple vessels 
(one ornamented with a tiger, and the other with a monkey), aquatic grass, 
fire, grains of rice, an axe, and a symbol (fu) resembling an axe. 

The Eight Buddhist Emblems (pa chi hsiang), which appeared on the sole 
of Buddha’s foot have been already mentioned on p. 126. 

The Seven Gems (ch‘i pao), or Paraphernalia of the Universal Sovereign, 
are the golden wheel, the jade-like girl, the horse, the elephant, the divine 
guardian of the treasury, the general in command of the army and the 
jewels (a bundle of jewelled wands) which fulfil every wish, 


136 


THE DESIGNS ON CHINESE PORCELAIN 


The Attributes of the Eight Immortals (pa an hsien) are 
the fan of Chung-li, the sword of Lii Tung-pin, the gourd 
of Li T‘ieh-kuai, the castanets of Ts‘ao Kuo-chiu, the 
basket of flowers of Lan Ts‘ai-ho, the fish-drum of Chang 
Kuo, the flute of Han Hsiang, and the lotus of Ho Hsien Ku. 

The Eight Precious Things (pa pao) are the pearl (chu) 
which grants every wish, the cash (ch‘ien) which symbolises 
wealth, the lozenge’ or picture (hua), the open-lozenge 
(fang shéng), the musical stone (ch‘ing), the pair of books 
(chu), the pair of horn-cups (chiieh), and the artemisia leaf 
(ai yeh), a preventative of disease. 

It will be observed that there is a certain amount of 
overlapping in these categories; and there are a few of 
the symbols like the pearl, the cash, the sounding-stone— 
a lucky emblem because its name ch‘ing sounds like ch‘ing 
(good luck)—which are of more common occurrence than 
the others. The symbols are usually invested with ribbons 
or fillets, and they sometimes are placed at the bottom of 
a vessel in lieu of a mark. 

The Swastika (wan), a much-discussed and world-wide 
symbol of familiar four-legged form, is regarded as a symbol 
of longevity. It is actually used for the character wan 
(ten thousand), and intertwined with the circular seal- 
form of the character shou (longevity) it makes the wan 
shou emblem (ten thousand longevities !). 

It remains to say a word about the subsidiary patterns 
which are indispensable for the completion of a well- 
balanced porcelain design. These include numerous 
diaper patterns mostly derived from textiles and brocades, 
and a certain number of well-tried border designs which 


ee 
8, 
Suey 
See. 
EX 
ere 
Se 


) 


oN 


ESS 


O) 


\ 
f 


The pa pao 


symbols, 


will be found admirably suited to the parts they are called Swastika symbol. 


upon to play. The commonest diaper patterns, used for 
filling spaces, are matting, lozenge, trellis, and hexagon 
patterns, and the key-fret. The meander or key-fret (the 
cloud and thunder pattern) is borrowed from ancient 
bronzes, and it is often complicated by the introduction 
of swastika forms. Stiff plantain leaves, another pattern 
borrowed from bronzes, are appropriate for the necks and 
the lower parts of vases: and narrow borders and dividing 


137 


Shou. 


© 


Wan shou. 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


bands are usually composed of fret patterns, silk-worm scrolls, running 
foliage scrolls, or hatched zigzag or chevron pattern. Strips of brocade 
design, usually interrupted by symmetrical panels of landscape or flower- 
ing plants, are suitable for the shoulders of vases ; and a common design 
for the lower border of vase or bowl is the ‘‘ rock of ages’ pattern (see 
p. 130) in which stiff conical rocks rise abruptly from the conventional 
crested waves. Water is commonly represented by a diaper of spiral coils 
or imbrications, on the surface of which plum blossoms and various symbols 
are seen floating. The head of the ju-i staff (see p. 149) is freely utilised in 
secondary ornament. Narrow bands of ju-i heads are a propitious border 
pattern, and large pendants or lambrequins usually take the ju-i head shape. 
Cloud-scrolls are another essentially Chinese decoration, used to suggest 
the sky and air ; and these often include a ju-i head shape, in which case 
they are known as ju-i cloud-scrolls or “‘ propitious clouds.” 

The pine, bamboo, and plum are worked into a border pattern of which 
the Japanese also made free use; a border of red bats occurs on some 
18th-century porcelains (Plate 63), and the design of a vine and squirrels, 
which is derived from an old Sung picture, is used on the necks of vases 
and occasionally on the borders of dishes. The porcelains made for 
European trade display other varieties of border patterns (see p. 101), but 
many, if not most, of these are due to European inspiration. 


CHAPTER XV 


MARKS 


The marks on the Ch‘ing porcelains are almost invariably to be found 
on the base of the vessel. Seals and signatures which occasionally appear 
in the field of decoration are not to be regarded as potters’ marks. It is 
even doubtful if any of them can be read as signatures of the pot-painter. 
They are almost always the seals of the artist or calligrapher whose work 
is reproduced. 

The marks proper are usually painted, more rarely stamped or incised. 
They are written both in the ordinary script (k‘ai shu) and in angular 
seal characters (chuan shu) and they are commonly enclosed in a double 
ring or in a square frame. The earlier marks are mainly painted in 
underglaze blue, but in the course of the 18th century it became more 
and more usual to employ enamel colours and even gilding. The Ch‘ien 
Lung Imperial seal mark is often painted in red in a square panel reserved 
in a ground of turquoise-green enamel, and some of the finest enamelled 
wares, such as those painted in the style of Ku Yiieh Hsiian are marked 
in a thick enamel (usually blue) which stands up in palpable relief. 
Porcelain with this raised mark is always worthy of attention. The 
Chinese place it in a class by itself. Chinese marks and inscriptions are 
read from right to left, if horizontally written: if in vertical columns, 
from top to bottom, the sequence of the columns being from right to 
left. 

The chief kinds of marks are (1) date marks, (2) hall-marks, (3) potters’ 
names and factory marks, (4) marks of commendation, symbols, etc. 

(1) Date marks. The date mark is usually in six or four characters 
containing the nien hao (or reign-name) of the reigning Emperor. The 
six characters run as follows: ta ch‘ing k‘ang hsi nien chih= 
made (chih) in the K‘ang Hsi period (nien) of the Great vw x 
Ch‘ing (dynasty): in the four-character mark the name of +f. A 
the dynasty (ta ch‘ing) is omitted. In rare cases, however, 
the name of the Emperor is omitted instead and we have the a) IB 
elliptical mark ta ch‘ing nien chih. This occurs on a blue and 
white bowl in the British Museum which is decorated in late Ming style ; 
and we may reasonably infer that it is a mark used during the first reign 
of the Ch‘ing dynasty, when such a style of decoration would be natural. 
A variation of the final character, chih, is tsao, which has the same meaning, 
“made ’’; tso, which also means made, is sometimes used for chih in 
potters’ signatures. 


139 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


We read in the T‘ao lu! that “in the sixteenth year of K‘ang Hsi the 
district magistrate, Chang Ch‘i-chung, a man of Yang-ch‘éng, forbade 
the workmen of Ching-té Chén to inscribe on the porcelain vessels the 
nien hao of the Emperor or the handwriting (tzi chi) of the holy men, to 
prevent their being broken and defaced.” It is certain that this pro- 
hibition soon became a dead letter, but it may account for the frequency 
with which the double ring destined for the mark is left empty on K‘ang 
Hsi blue and white, and also for the prevalence of alternative marks such 
as reign-names of Ming Emperors, marks of commendation and symbols. 

It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that Chinese reign-names 
are not always to be taken at their face value. Whether as a compliment 
to the distinguished potters of the past, as an indication that the style 
of a classic reign was being copied, or merely from force of habit, the 
Ch‘ing potters made very free use of certain Ming reign-names. Those 
of Hsiian Té, Ch‘éng Hua and Chia Ching are almost commoner on 
K‘ang Hsi porcelain than that of K‘ang Hsi himself; and in return 
the name of K’ang Hsi is freely used on 1gth-century porcelain. The 
Yung Chéng and Ch‘ien Lung marks are also borrowed by modern 
potters; but the marks of the minor reigns can generally be taken 
literally, as there was little temptation to copy them. A special depart- 
ment existed at the Imperial factory for writing marks and seals, and 
we look for superior calligraphy on the Imperial wares. One would 
expect, too, that the nien hao on Imperial porcelain would be truthfully 
given; and, indeed, this is probably true in the main, but there are 
specimens with the K‘ang Hsi mark which are undistinguishable from 
others with the mark of Ch‘ien Lung. It is likely that even on Imperial 
wares the whole-hearted imitation of the ware of a previous Emperor 
included the use of his nien hao. 

A more precise indication of date is given on the rare specimens which 
have a cyclical date as well as the nien hao. In the cyclical system Chinese 
chronology is divided into cycles of sixty years and each year of the cycle 
has a two-character name composed of one of the Ten Stems combined 
with one of the Twelve Branches.? A convenient table worked out by 
Mr. Hetherington® will enable the reader to identify easily any cyclical 
characters he may meet. 


1 Bk. VIII, fol. 14, quoting from the I chih. 

2 For a list of the Stems and Branches and an explanation of the terms see Mayers’ 
Chinese Readers’ Manual : a list of cyclical dates is also given in the same work. 

3 The Early Ceramic Wares of China, p. 145. 


140 


MARKS 


“‘ The first horizontal line of characters represents the ten stems. One 
of these stems will be found in combination with one of the branches 
(which follow) in every cyclical date mark. If the eye is carried vertically 
downwards from the stem which has been detected in the inscription 


BEABBSSEEE 
eiaieisisisisiar © 
AnpBGGGOGies 
epee |= ee 
Gist GE emGGics 
Cacia ea GEESE 
peepee at eles 


until it recognises the branch character, the year of the cycle can be read 
off at once.” Unfortunately the cyclical dates occur sometimes without 
any nien hao and we are left in the dark as to the particular cycle with 
which we have to deal. In such cases we have to fall back on any internal 
evidence there may be in the inscription or in the porcelain 
itself for a solution. A classic instance is the mark on an | A 
important famille rose bowl in the British Museum, which FF. + 
reads yu hsin ch‘ou nien chih=made in the hsin ch‘ou year 
recurring (yu). Taking our table we locate the Stem Asin in -ei! FP 
the eighth square of the top line and running the eye down 
the column we find the Branch ch‘ou four squares below it. In this way 
we gather that the hsin ch‘ou year is the 38th of the cycle. 

The cyclical system is supposed to have begun in the year 2637 B.c. ; 
but in the Ch‘ing dynasty we are only concerned with the cycles beginning 


I4I 









THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


in 1624, 1684, 1744, 1804, and 1864. The hsin ch‘ou year in the Ch‘ing 
dynasty must be 1661, 1721, 1781, or 1841, but the only reign in which it 
could have recurred is that of K’ang Hsi! and the only year to which the 
phrase can apply is 1721. 

Hall-marks are so-called because they include the ard t‘ang (hall) or 
an equivalent, such as chai (study), t‘ing (pavilion), hsien or hstian (porch, 
balcony, pavilion), kuan (residence), fang (room or house) or chi (dwelling). 
The t‘ang ming or ‘‘ family hall name ”’ (usually making reference to some 
signal event in the family history) is inscribed in one of the chief rooms 
of the house, on graves, on deeds, etc. Moreover, the Chinese artist 
almost invariably has a studio- or art-name in which the word hall or 
one of its equivalents commonly occur. 

It is clear, then, that the hall-mark is open to a variety of interpretations. 
It may be the studio-name of the potter, the family hall-name of the 
person for whom the pot was made, the building for which it was destined 
as in the case of temples and palace pavilions, the name of the shop for 
which it was ordered, or that of the workshop in which it was made or 
decorated. Prof. Pelliot’s dictum? that, where the word chih (made) 
terminates the mark, it can only mean “‘ made by,’’ would, if accepted, 
narrow the issue considerably, as it would reduce most of the hall-marks, 
including many of the supposed Palace hall-marks, to: studio-names. 
It seems presumptuous to question the accuracy of such a scholar as 
Prof, Pelliot ; but when we find that other sinologues do not agree with 
him, that educated Chinese are of a different opinion, and that the 
Professor himself is unable to apply his own rule without getting into 
difficulties,* we feel justified in doubting if this rule can be rigidly applied. 
At any rate I have been assured by a Chinese gentleman that he and his 
compatriots are prepared to accept the reading ‘* made for’”’ as well as 
“made by ”’ in the case in point. 

Hall-marks are numerous on Ch‘ing dynasty porcelains, and especially 
on those made in the early years of the 19th century. One interesting 
and much-quoted hall-mark, that of the Shén té t‘ang, occurs on a specimen 
in the Hippisley Collection which has a poem by the Emperor Tao Kuang 
in the decoration. If the mark is the studio-name of a potter, the Shén 
té t‘ang specimens will not be earlier than the Tao Kuang period (1821-50) ; 


1 It was not the custom to include in an Emperor’s reign the year in which his predecessor 
died. The new Emperor officially dates his reign from the first day of the following year. 
Thus the K‘ang Hsi period is put down as beginning in 1662, though the reign actually 
includes a part of 1661. 2 op. cit., p. 49. 3 Op. Clits, Pp. 515 


142 


MARKS 


if, on the other hand, it is, as has been suggested, a Palace hall-mark, 
there is more latitude in dating them. The general style of the Shén té 
t‘ang porcelains, however, is that of the 19th century, although they 
include some clever imitations of Ming wares.} 

Potters’ names, etc. Potters’ names, apart from hall-marks, are rare 
on porcelain. They would hardly be expected to appear on Imperial 
wares; and the minute division of labour which we know prevailed in 
the factories at Ching-té Chén would be sufficient explanation of their 
absence on the ordinary wares. When the vessel passed through so many 
hands it would be invidious to attach any one workman’s name to it. 
There are certain obscure seal marks which are known as shop marks, 
but as they are generally illegible they do not help us much, even if we 
are right in regarding them as the seals of individual potters. 

A curious mark, resembling the European letter ‘‘ G,’”’ is seen on K‘ang 
Hsi blue and white and enamelled wares of high quality (Plate 43). It 
seems probable that this is a mark suggested by some European trader, 
to distinguish the wares made for him. 

The names of Chiang Ming-kao and Ch‘én Kuo-chih are found on 
specimens of biscuit porcelain made in the early part of the 18th century ; 
and potters’ names occasionally appear on the white porcelain of Té-hua. 
In both these cases the porcelain would be made and finished by one 
individual. Similarly potters’ names are frequent on the earthenware 
and stoneware made at such places as Yi-hsing and Fatshan. 

Marks of Commendation, etc. It is not unusual to find in the place of 
the more normal mark some character or phrase commending or describing 
the ware or invoking a blessing on its possessor. Dedicatory inscriptions 
at greater length are sometimes written or incised in the field of decoration. 

Good wishes are expressed by such characters as shou (long life), fu 
(happiness), chi (good luck), and ch‘ing (prosperity), or symbolically by 
a peach or fungus for longevity, a bat for happiness, etc. ; commendation 
by characters such as yii (jade), chén (a gem), ch‘tian (complete). 

The character shou (longevity) is written in a variety of seal forms, many 
of them quite fantastic in appearance. Occasionally a vase is decorated 
entirely with the ‘‘ Hundred Forms of Shou.’’ There is a circular form 
of shou which looks like a meander, especially when the swastika (wan) 
is interwoven with it. This is the wan shou? symbol meaning “ ten 


1 See Wares of the Ming Dynasty, p. 223, and B.M. Guide, Fig. 154. In discussing the 
Shén té t‘ang mark in the latter book (p. 159) I gave Prof. Pelliot’s dictum what seems now 
a too ready acceptance. a0 See 0.047, 


143 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


thousand longevities.”” A curious mark found on export blue and white 
of the K‘ang Hsi period is a fanciful form of shou, generally known as 
the ‘spider mark,” Symbols and emblems of various kinds are not 
infrequently used in the place of a mark on K‘ang Hsi blue and white. 
Those which occur most frequently are the pa pao (Eight Precious 
Things)! and the pa chi hsiang (Eight Buddhist Emblems of Happy 
Augury)? ; but we also see the swastika in a lozenge, the embroidery 
symbol (fu), the ju-i head, the tripod vessel (ting), the ling chih fungus, 
a sprig of prunus, and a plain artemisia leaf without fillets. The lion 
and sometimes the dragon are painted on the bottom of snuff-bottles 
and small vases in place of a mark, 


i See p.137: 2 See p. 127. 


144 


yee TA BERT pet $e af 
Bt ae pr SESS ae Dr 


qk tat 
=> 


SS 
Bod. = 


myer 
Set Mt St + 


ME tt RR 
ct a Dt 


Shun Chih 
(1644-61). 


The same in seal 
characters. 


K‘ang Hsi 
(1662-1722). 


The same in seal 
characters. 


Yung Chéng 
(1723-35). 


The same in seal 
characters. 


Ch‘ien Lung 
(1736-95). 


MARKS 


Reign Names: 


(eal 


5 


Benin 


ay 
St Bie Ye 


Bi She Ye 


rll SEU 
OHS 


145 


Ch‘ien Lung in 
seal characters. 


Chia Ch‘ing 
(1796-1820). 


The same in seal 
characters. 


Tao Kuang 
(1821-50). 


The same in seal 
characters. 


Hsien Féng 
(1851-61). 


The same in seal 
characters. 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


pe Pr at 


ek ty BEIGE 


3S x 


HB 3% 


ti 
& 
y 


acc 





aN 
if 
K 


Dn 
= 


TRE 
SSc 
SELHE 


it 
Je 


Marks of Ming Emperors frequently 
found on Ch‘ing porcelain. 


T‘ung Chih 
(1862-74). 4i8 kK 
Hsiian Té 
cm AF (1426-35). 
i nme) 
4) 3 
The same in seal 
characters. AY, Fe 
2 3 HA Ch‘éng Hua 
(1465-87). 
Kuang Hsit ag ik 
(1875-1908). 
A s Chia Ching 
Sf. P's (1522-66). 
The same in seal #) Zz 


characters. 


Hsiian T‘ung 
(1909-12). 


Hung Hsien 
(name adopted by Yiian 
Shih-k‘ai in 1916). 


146 


MARKS 


Hall-marks, 


Chu shih chit 
(red rocks retreat). 


Yu chai 
(quiet pavilion), 





Ku yitieh hstian chih 
(made by Ku Yiieh Hsiian). 


iD & 


Lu i t‘ang 
(hall of green ripples). 


— 
¢ 


Shén té t‘ang chih : 
(made for the hall of culti- 10 
vation of virtue). 


Ts‘ai jun t'ang chih 
(made in the hall of brilliant 
colours). 


eT 
Re 
# 
i) 
= 
= 
R 
e 
R 


HS MR 


Ching wei t‘ang chih 
(made for the hall of respect- 
ful awe), 


= gr: Ta ya chai 
rea J i kK (pavilion of grand culture). 


147 











Potters’ Names. 


Chiang ming kao tsao 
(made by Chiang Ming-kao). 


Ch‘én kuo chih tsao 
(made by Ch’én Kuo-chih). 


Yu féng yang lin 
(Yang-lin of Yii-féng). 


Pai-shih (white rock) and 
Ling nan hui ché (Canton 
picture). 


Wang tso ting tso 
(made by Wang Tso-t‘ing). 


Wang ping jung tso 
(made by Wang Ping-jung). 


THE LATER CERAMIC WARES OF CHINA 


Potters’ Names. 


¢ Chao-chin. 





Chung t‘un shih 
(Chung-t‘un family). 


¢ Li-chih. 


Lai-kuan. 


Chao tsung ho yin 
(seal of Ho Chao-tsung). 


Ko Ming hsiang chih 





Ko yiian hsiang chih 


(made by Ko Yiian-hsiang). 


Yi hsing tzu sha 


G mark. 





(made by Ko Ming-hsiang). 


(brown earth of Yi-hsing). 


Chih (made to 
command). 





Shop marks. 


Marks of Commendation, etc. 


Ch'‘i yii pao ting chih chén 
(a gem among precious 
vessels of rare jade). 


Chén wan 
(precious trinket). 


Yii (jade). 


Ya wan 
(elegant trinket). 


Ch‘iian (complete). 


Chi (good luck). 


MARKS 


Marks of Commendation, etc. 


Nes Fu (happiness). 
Endless knot. 
J 
RK Lu (rank). 
= 
ee ity). Ling chih 
Be Stoudongevy). han fungus 


“* Spider ’’ mark 


(a form of shou). 
@® Head of a ju-i sceptre. 
: Fu (an embroidery 
A tripod. ornament). 





149 





INDEX 


Abundances, three, 135 
Adgey-Edgar, W. H., 94 

Ailes de mouches, 57 

Alms bowl, 118 

Altar set, 117 

Amaranth, 70, 77 

Amoy, 104, 105, III 

Amphora shape, 55 

An hua, 42 

Apple-green, 23, 50, 53, 57, 58, 93, 95 
Arhats, 106, 126 

Arita, 38, 39 

Armorial porcelain, 98, 99, 100, Io 
Art of Drawing, the, 120 

Ashes of roses, 53 

Aster pattern, 16 

Attiret, 97, 114 

Aubergine, 31, 47, 49, 59, 61, 65, 78 
Augustus the Strong, 13, 34 


Bamboo, 26, 128, 130, 135, 133 

Bamboo Grove, 121 

Basket of flowers, 35 

Batavian ware, 48, 72 

Bats, 68, 133, 136 

Battersea, 102 

Bee, 133 

Belleville, 69, 83, 97 

Bird’s egg glazes, 77 

Birthday plates, 36 

Biscuit, 24, 43, 79 

Black, 23, 28, 29, 81, 95 

Black and gold, 72, 81, 100 

Blane de Chine, 104, 105 

Blessings, five, 64, 68, 134 

Blue, 5, 44 

Blue and white, 8-22, 67, 78, 90 

Blue put in press, 20 

Bodhidharma, 106 

Book of Filial Duty, 123 

Border patterns, 100, IOI, 137 

Bottengruber, 102 

Béttger, 103 

Bottles, 115 

Bow, IoI, 105 

Boxes, 19 

Brick-red, 83 

Brinjal bowls, 59 

Brinkley, F., 50 

Bristol, Lord, 10 

Bristol porcelain, 101, 105, 107 

British Museum, 8, 13, 16, 20, 21, 25, 30, 37, 42, 53, 
68, 70, 71, 72, 75, 84, 88, 90, 98, 99, 100, 101, 
102, 103, 108, 120, 139, 141, 143 

British Museum Guide, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 25, 70, 
90, 98 

Brocade patterns, 35, 36, 80, 120 

Bronze designs, 26, 76, 78, 79, 118, 120 

Bronze-green, 76 

Brown, lustrous, 17, 48, 49, 65, 78, 94 

Brush pots, 27 . 

Buccaro, 112 

Buddha, 125, 134 

Burlington Magazine, 16, 120 

Bushell, S. W., xxvi, 3, 7, 12, 20, 37, 42, 45, 47, 60, 
62, 63, 69, 75, 78, 88, 113, 118 


151 


Butterflies, 26, 73, 134 
Butterfly cages, 117 


Caffieri, 41 

Calicut, 69 

Camellia leaf green, 50, 57, 77 

Canton, 4, 71, 72, 73, 80, 99, 100, IOI, 102, 109, II0 

Canton merchants, 17 

Cash, 129, 137 

Cassia, 122, 130 

Castiglione, 51, 97, 114 

Celadon, 22, 47, 49, 53, 68, 78, 79, 84, 99, 92, 94, 95, 
IIo 

Chadwick, arms of, 101 

Chambrelans, 102 

Chang Ch‘i-chung, 140 

Chang Ch‘ien, 121, 131 

Chang Chiu-ko, 130 

Chang Séng-yu, 132 

Changsha, I11 

Chao-chin, 148 

Chaochowfu, 109, 110 

Checkers, 119, 123 

Chelsea, 102, 105 

Ch‘éng Hua style, 69 

Ch‘én Kuo-chih, 43, 147 

Chén Tsai, 125 

Chi hung, 51, 53, 63, 91, 92, 94 

Chi ts‘ui, 56 

Chia ch‘ing, 20, 87, 88 

Chiang hsi tung chih, 63 

Chiang Ming-kao, 43, 143, 147 

Chiang t‘ai, 19 

Chiang tou hung, 54 

Chiang Tzti-ya, 121 

Ch‘ien Lung, 1, 74-86 

Ch‘ien Lung black, 29, 81 

Chien ware, 48 

Chih lung, 132 

Chii-lin, 132 

Ch‘i-mén, 5 

China clay, 5 

China stone, 5 

Chinese Imari, 38, 39, 100 

Ching wei t‘ang mark, 147 

Ch‘ing-tien stone, 44 

Chin-hua, 5 

Ching-té Chén, 2, 4 

Ch‘in Yiieh-hsiu, 4 

Chelsea, 18 

Chou Ts‘ang, 124 

Chou Mao-shu, 122 

Chrysanthemum, 130, 135 

Chu shih chi mark, 147 

Ch‘u hsiu kung chih mark, 89 

Chit jén t‘ang chih mark, 94 

Chu Mai-ch‘én, 121 

Chiianchowfu, 111 

Ch‘ui ch‘ing, 45 

Chiin ware, 63, 64, 65, 75, 77, 91, 110, I12 

Chung K‘uei, 131 

Chung t‘un shih mark, 148 

Chung-li Ch‘iian, 61 

Clair de lune, 44, 66, 77, 95 

Clennell, W. J., xxv, 4 

Clobbered porcelain, 103 


Cloisonné blue, 64, 77 
Cloisonné enamels, 69, 78 
Cloud-scrolls, 138 

Cobalt, 5, 44, 78 

Cock and peonies, 71, 133 
Coffee brown, 49 

Collie, Prof. Norman, 52, 53 
Confucius, 124, 134 
Connoisseur, the, 94 
Copper, oxide of, 51, 52 
Coral red, 36, 77 
Cornaline, 52 

Cory, Reginald, 34 
Country Life, 101 

O.P.P., 31, 34, 51, 54, 79, 82, 112 
Crackle, 57, 58, 78, 94 
Cranes, 31, 128, 130 
Cricket pots, 117 

Crown Prince, the, 17 
Cucumber-green, 56, 66 
Cyclical dates, 70, 140, 141 


David, P., 19, 20, 90 
Date-marks, 18, 139-42 
Deer, 128, 130, 133 
Demi-grand feu, 44 
Derby, 101 

Deshima, 38 
Dharmatrata, 126 

Diaper patterns, 71, 137 
Double ring, 18 

Dragon, 132, 144 

Dragon, archaic, 15, 26, 116, 132 
Dragon Boat Festival, 123 
Dragon fish-bowls, 3 
Drawing-books, 120 
Dresden, 103, 112 


Dresden Collection, xxvi, 13, 25, 34, 35) 37) 39, 59s 


60,72, 105, 112 
Drucker, J. J. C., 29 
Ducks, 133 
Dukes, E. J., 104, 107 
Dutch Delft, 97, 102 
Dutch East India Company, 72 
Dutch traders, 38, 102 
Dwight, 105 


Early Ceramic Wares of China, 140 
Eel-skin yellow, 49, 63, 66 

Egg and spinach glaze, 50, 59 

Eggshell porcelain, 36, 42, 64, 71, 117 
Egypt, 95 

Eight Buddhist symbols, 93, 126, 127, 136, 144 
Eight Immortals, 92, 122, 128, 136, 137 
Eight Musical Instruments, 136 

Eight Precious Things, 92, 136, 137, 144 
Elephant, 126, 133 

Empress Dowager, 88, 94 

Enamel colours, 6, 23, 61 


d’Entrecolles, Pére, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 16-20, 32, 
33) 37) 38, 43, 45, 47-51, 54, 57) 58, 60, 61, 62, 


72, 98, 105 
Eumorfopoulos, G., 31, 65 
European black, 70, 81 
European colours, 70 
European merchants, 16, 138 


152 


INDEX 


European style, 65, 66, 69, 80, 82, 83, 86, 97-103 
Export porcelain, 17, 85 
Ezekiel, M. D., 80, 82, 83 


Fa-lang, 66, 69 

Falkner, F., ror 

Famille jaune, 28, 30 

Famille noire, 26, 28, 29, 30, 93 
Famille rose, 10, 68, 69, 70, 77, 79, 80, 85, 112 
Famille verte, 9, 23-40, 68, 73, 100 
Fan hung, 50 

Fan tzu, 43 

Farrer, Gaspard, 35 

Fatshan, 110, 143 

Fei ts‘ui, 56 

Fén hung, 70 

Fén ting, 44, 63 

Féng Po, 131 

Féng-huang, 132 

Ferguson, J. C., 127 

Field Museum, 113 

Figures, 26, 27, 61, 85, 97, 104, 106, 110, 113, 119 
Filial Piety, Heroines of, 123 

Fish dragon, 125 

Fishes, 64, 68, 133 

Fish-bowls, 3, 8, 75, 117 

Fish-roe pattern, 35 

Flambé glaze, 51, 56, 67, 76, 77, 94, 110 
Flower Fairy, 129 

Fo-lang, 69, 119 

Foot-rim, grooved, 36, 90 

Foreign colours, 66, 71, 75, 80 
Four Liberal Accomplishments, 34, 122, 136 
Franks Collection, 13, 31 

Fret patterns, 138 

Friends, Three, 134 

Frog-spawn pattern, 35 

Fruits, three, 64, 68, 135 

Fu, 133, 134, 136 

Fu Ch‘ai, 121 

Fu Hsi, 131 

Fukien, 8, 97, 102, 104-108, 113 
Fulham, 105 

Fungkai, 110 

Fungus, 64, 68, 128 


G mark, 18, 31, 143, 148 
Gherardini, 69, 83, 97 

Gilding, 66, 81 

Ginger jars, 14 

Glassy porcelain, 21, 82, 83 
Glazes, 5, 32 

Golden Island, 131 

Gorer and Blacker, 31 

Gourd, 130, 135 

Gouthiére, 41 

Gow, Leonard, 16, 26, 29, 31, 46 
Goya, 106 

Grand feu, 44 

Graviata, 80, 81 

Great Bear, 27 

Green, 49, 51, 55, 56, 61, 64, 65, 70 
Green enamel, 31, 49, 77 
Green-black, 23, 28, 81 
Grenadier vases, 13 


INDEX 


Haarlem, the, 8 Juan ts‘ai, 69 

Hadden, Harvey, 36 Ju-t, 130, 131, 138, 144, 149 
Hai shou, 132 Jujube red, 70, 77, 130 
Hall-marks, 9, 18, 89, 142, 143, 147, 148, 149 Julien, Stanislas, xxvi, 45 
Halo, 24 


Han bronze, 61 
Hangchow, 135 
Han-shan, 129 
Hare, 126, 130 Kaolin, 5, 18 

Hariti, 125 Kashan, III 

Hawthorn jars, 14 Kettle shape, 26 

Hervey, John, 10 Keyser, de, 106 

Hetherington, A. L., 140 Kiungchow, 109 

Hippisley, A. E., 34, 69, 82, 90, 142 Ko Ming-hsiang, 110, 148 

Ho, 93 Ko ware, 63, 66, 91 

Ho Chao-tsung, 107, 148 Ko Yiian-hsiang, 110, 148 

Ho Shén, 74, 87 Ku Yiieh Hstian, 73, 82, 83, 139, 147 
Hongs, 99 Kua p‘i lit, 56 

Horses, 129, 130, 133 Kuan, 94 

Hotarude, 84 Kuan P‘ing, 124 

Hou Hsien Shéng, 128, 129 Kuan Ti, 1, 106, 124 


Hsi Shih, 121 Kuan ware, 63, 64, 66, 85, 119 
Hsi Wang Mu, 128, 129 Kuan Yii, 124 

Hsiang’s Album, 21 Kuan-yin, 105, 106, 108, 125 
Hsiang Hu, 64 Kuan-yin vase, 115 

Hsieh An, 123 Kuang Hsii, 88, 93 

Hsieh Min, 63, 68, 69, 79, 72, 75) 76, Wide K‘uei Hsing, 61, 124 

Hsien Féng, 87, 90 Kuei-kung, 43 

Hsin ch‘ow year, 141, 142 Kukiang, 111 

Hsiian T‘ung, 88, 93 K‘ung ch‘iao lt, 56 

Hu, 82 Kwangtung, 64, 109, I10, I13 
Hua chuan san chi, 120 Kylin, 132 

Hua chuan ssi chi, 120 
Hua shih, 18, 19, 79 
Huang An, 130 

Huang lit huan, 60 
Huang li tien, 60, 66 
Huang pan tien, 50, 60 
Hui Tsung, 34 

Hundred Antiques, 35, 136 
Hundred birds, 80, 133 
Hundred deer, 80, 133 
Hundred flowers, 80, 135 
Hung Hsien, 94, 146 


Kakiemon, 38, 39, 102 
K‘ang Hsi, 1, 70, 142 


Lac black, 77 

Lac burgauté, 78 

Lace-work, 84 

Lacquer, 90, 120 

Lady Lever Art Gallery, 13, 46, 49, 72, 83, 98, 100 
Lai-kuan, 107, 148 

Lama Temple, 114 

Landscapes, 15, 135 

Lang Shih-ning, 51 

Lang Ting-tso, 3, 51 

Lang yao, 3, 37, 51, 52, 53, 55, 67, 76, 94, 95 
Lange lijsen, 8, 16 


Imari, 39 Lanterns, 17, 27, 36, 62, 84, 117 
Imitations, xxix, 25, 29, 30, 57, 62, 66, 93, 143 Laotse, 125, 128, 134 
Immortals, the Eight, 106, 122, 128, 130, 136, 137 Lavender glaze, 22, 66, 68, 70, 77 
Immortals of the Wine-cup, 122 Law’s Bubble, 99 

Imperial factory, 3, 62, 90, 93 Lead silicate glazes, 61 

Incense burners, 19, 119 Lei kung, 131 

Ink, painting in, 65, 72 Leopard skin glaze, 59 

Ink slab, 25 Levy, Hon. Mrs. Walter, 37 
Inscriptions, 135 Li Hung-chang, 91 

Iron, oxide of, 47 Li Li-wéng, 120 

Iron red, 50, 70, 77, 81 Li T‘ai-po, 55, 121 

Iron rust glaze, 76 Li Tzii-ch ‘éng, 1 


Li Ung Bing, 2 
Libation cups, 116, 118 


Jade mark, 9, 18, 148 Li-chih, 148 

Japanese, the, 10, 66, 84, 98, 13 Ling chih, 128, 130, 135, 144, 149 
Jesuit china, 98, 99 ' Lions, 27, 96, 127, 128, 144 
Jesuits, 97 Liu Hai, 129, 130 

Jewel, Buddhist, 128 Liu-li-chii, 113 

Joel, J. B., 46, 7x Liver colour, 55, 76 

Joshua, Mrs., 89 Lohan, 96, 126 

Ju ware, 52, 63, 119 Long Elizas, 8, 16, 122 


153 


Longevity, 128 

Lotus Festival, 34, 122 
Louis XIV, 97 

Love chase, 8, 9 
Lowdin’s factory, 105 
Lowestoft, 86, ror 

Lu i tang mark, 147 
Lu T‘an-wei, 127 

Lii Tung-pin, 131 
Luan, 132 

Lung ma, 131, 132, 133 
Lung mén, 34, 125 
Lung Nii, 125 
Lung-ch‘tian ware, 47, 63, 64, 68 
Lustre, 24, 28, 89 


Ma Ku, 20, 129 

Ma nao, 52 

Ma Shih-huang, 130 
Ma-chuang, 113 

Madonna, 125 

Magnolia, 22 

Magpies, 133 

Mandarin porcelain, 85, 86 
Mang, 132 

Manganese, 47 

Manjusri, 125 

Marbled porcelain, 95 
Maritime Customs Reports, 109 
Marks, 18, 139-149 

Marks in enamel, 83, 139 
Marks of commendation, 18, 143, 148 
Maroon glaze, 54, 55 
Marriage cup, 26, 116 
Marryat, J., 13 

Mayers, F. W., 123, 140 
Mazarin, Cardinal, 41, 46 
Medallion bowls, 81, 88, &9 
Met kuei, 77 

Meissen, I0I, 102, 105 
Mennecy, 105 

Metallic oxides, 23, 70 
Methods of manufacture, 11 
Milky Way, 131 

Mille fleurs, 80 
Millet-colour, 65 

Mi-lo Fo, 126 

Ming Huang, 121 


Ming wares, 10, II, 25, 27, 32, 36, 38, 46, 59, 63, 
66-68, 79, 90, 104, 107, 109, 113, 143, 146 


Mirror black, 48, 49, 66, 78, 94 
Mi sé, 65 

Mixed enamels, 36, 70, 82, 89 
Mo hung, 65 

Mohammedan blue, 67 
Monkey, 133 

Moon, goddess of, 130 

Moon white, 64 

Mosaic patterns, 15 

Mu Wang, 129, 130, 133 
Muffle kiln, 6, 23, 44, 64, 77 
Mustard yellow, 50 


Nagasaki, 38 
Nanking, 10, III 
Nanking, Treaty of, 87 


INDEX 


Nanking yellow, 38, 48, 49 
Netted patterns, 15 

New Hall, 86 

New Year, the, 14 

Nien Hsi-yao, 41, 62, 74 
Ningpo, 111 

North, Spirit of, 130 
Nurhachu, 1 


Oatmeal crackle, 58 

Ogres, 131 

Okeover, ror 

Old Japan, 38 

On-biscuit enamels, 24-31, 93, 95 
On-glaze enamels, 24, 32-40 
Onion sprouts, 19, 79 

Openwork, 43, 84, 95 

Orange, 135 

Orange-peel glaze, 44, 77, 83, 86 
Orchid Pavilion, r2r 

Oriental Ceramic Society, Transactions, 52, 131 
Ormolu mounts, 41, 47, 68 

Ox herd, 131 


Pa an hsien, 137 

Pa chi hsiang, 93, 126, 127, 136, 144 
Pa kua, 131 

Pa pao, 92, 137, 144 

Pai ma, 126, 133 

Pai shih, 71, 147 

Pakhoi, 109 

Pao shih hung, 51, 63 
Paris, 30 

Parrots, 27 

Paste-bodied porcelain, 82 
Peach, 128, 130, 135 

Peach bloom, 22, 54, 55, 93 
Pear, 130 

Pearl, 132, 137 

Peers, Charles, ror 

Peking, 3, 13, 81, 87, 88, 106, 113, 135 
Peking bowls, 81, 88, 89 
Pelliot, P., 51, 142, 143 
Pencilled blue, 100 
Perzynski, F., 120 

Peters, S. T., 48, 50 

Petit feu, 44 

Petuntse, 5, 18 

Pheasants on rock, 28, 31, 133 
Phenix, 28, 132 

Pi hsieh, 132 

Pigtail, 1, 27 

Pine, 128, 130, 135, 138 
Pring kuo ch‘ing, 54 

Ping kuo hung, 54 
Plaques, 3, 8, 117 

Po ku, 36, 136 

Pompadour, Madame de, 41 
Poppies, 73 

Porcelain, 5 

Port Sunlight, 13, 14, 30 
Portuguese, 106 

Poshan, 112 

Potters’ Names, 147, 148 
Powder-blue, 37, 38, 45, 46, 66 
Preussler, 102 


Prunus blossom, floating, 35 

Prunus jars, 13, 14 

Prunus pattern, 28, 128, 130, 135, 138 
Punch-bowls, 99 

Purchas his Pilgrimes, 106 

Pu-tai Ho-shang, 126 


Quails and millet, 71, 133 


Rams, three, 83, 133 

Raphael, O. C., 96 

Rat and vine pattern, 27, 86 

Red painted ware, 65 

Red pigment, 60 

Red and blue family, 40, 86 

Red and green family, 68, 90 

Red and gold, 72, 81 

Red, under glaze, 21, 51, 65, 68, 79, 94, 95 
Red-blossomed prunus, 29, 34 
Reign-names, 17, 139, 140, 145, 146 
Republic of China, 88 

Ricci, Matteo, 97 

Rice grain, 84, 88 

Rice planting, 120 

Rice-bowls, 79, 81, 88, 89 

Robin’s egg glaze, 77, 96, 112 
Rock of Ages pattern, 130, 138 
Roman Catholics, 87, 123 

Rose and ticket pattern, 15, 36 
Rose pink, 37, 69, 70, 77 
Rothschild, Anthony de, 31, 34, 36 
Rotterdam, 98 

Rouleau vase, 115 

Ruby-back dishes, 71, 77, 100 
Ruby pink, 75 


St. Cloud, 105 

Salmon, 34, 125 

Salt glaze, 21 

Salting Collection, 13, 30, 31, 50, 77, 81, 108, 115 
Samantabhadra, 125 

San Fan, 2, 3 

San Kuan, 129 

San pao p‘éng, 18, 58 

San ts‘at, 24, 59 

Sang de beuf, 22, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 76, 93 
Sanskrit, 126, 135 

Scherzer, M., xxv, xxix, 49, 51, 53, 56, 58, 93 
Schiller, F. N., 52 

Scott, Lindley, 8 

Scrap bowls, 116 

Scratch blue, 21 

Sea horses, 35, 133 

Seasons, flowers of, 28, 134 

Secret decoration, 42 

Seven Gems, 136 

Seven Paraphernalia, 136 

Seven Worthies, the, 82, 121 

Sets of Five, 13 

Sevres, 18, 43 

Sha tat, 19 

Shan yii huang, 49 

Shanghai, 111 

Shanhaikuan, 1 

Shao-hsing, 5 


INDEX 


155 


Shekwan, 110 

Shé p‘t lii, 57 

Shén-té Hall, 84, 90, 142, 143, 147 
Shih-ma, 111 

Shih-té, 129 

Shop marks, 59, 148 

Shou, 26, 34, 143, 149 

Shou Lao, 128, 131 

Shui hu chuan, 34, 121 

Shun Chih, 1, 3, 8 

Shun, Prince, 88 

Silver decoration, 45, 48, 65, 72, 81 
Slip, 22, 68, 79 

Smith, W. F., 16 

Snake-skin green, 56, 57, 63 
Snuff bottles, 44, 82, 90, 94-96 
Soft-paste, 18 

Soufflé blue, 45, 64 

Soufflé red, 54, 64, 66, 76 

Spider mark, 144, 149 

Spotted yellow, 50, 56, 63, 66 
Squirrel, 27, 133, 138 

Ssii-ma Kuang, 121 

Star gods, 130 

Steatite, 18, 19 

Steatite dip, 79 

Steatitic porcelain, 20, 44, 68, 79, 82, 94, 95 
Stem-cups, 68 

Stork, 133 

Su Wu, 121 

Sut yu, 45, 47, 48, 58 

Sun bird, 130 

Sun Yat Sen, 88 

Sung wares, 63, 64, 65, 66, 119 
Supper sets, 116 

Swastika, 130, 136, 137, 143, 144 
Swatow, 109, IIO, III 

Swings, 98 

Symbols, 18 


Ta Ch‘ing, 1 

Ta Ch‘ing nien chih, 8, 139 

La ya chai, 94, 147 

Table Bay, 8, 9, 33 

Tai chi symbol, 91 

T‘ai P‘ing rebellion, 87, 90 

T‘ai Tsung, 1, 2 

T‘ai-po tsun, 55 

T‘ai-yiian Fu, 113 

Talbot, arms of, 100 

Tamo, 126 

T‘ang dynasty, 27 

T‘ang Ying, 5, 7, 19, 41, 62, 63, 67, 69, 70, 72, 74, 
75, 79, 77, 78, 82 

Tao Kuang, 87, 89, 90 

Tao lu, 9, 45, 49, 56, 57, 58, 62, 67, 72, 75, 76, 140 

Tao shuo, 3, 7, 12, 20, 69, 75, 78, 80, 118 

Tao t‘ieh, 131 

T‘ao Yiian-ming, 122 

Taoism, 123, 128, 130 

Tattooed designs, 21, 84 

Tea-dust glaze, 67, 76, 88 

Té-hua, 104-107, III, 143 

Temple of Heaven, 78, 114 

T‘ien Ch ‘i, 1 

Tien mu, 131 

Tientsin, Treaty of, 87 


INDEX 


Tiger, 132 Weaving Maiden, 121, 131 
Tiger lily pattern, 16 Wén Ch‘ang, 124 

Tiger skin glaze, 50, 59, 61 Wén chang shan tou, 27 
Tiles, 114 Wén Chéng-ming, 80 

Tile works, 113 . Wen p‘ing, 34, 121 

Tiny Tr White, arsenical, 37, 69, 81 
Ting Kao, 120 White horse, 126 

Ting ware, 44, 63, 66, 78, 95, 96, 119 White Lily rebellion, 87 
T‘o tai, 42, 64 White porcelain, 42, 43, 65, 78 
Toad, 129, 130 Wilkes, John, 99 

Tobacco, 95 Williams, Wells, 109, 110 
Toko glaze, 76 Willow pattern, 101, 135 
Tortoise, 128, 130, 133 Wolfsbourg, de, 102 
Tortoiseshell glaze, 50 Woodman, R. T., 35 
Transfer-print, 99 Worcester, 102 

Treaty ports, 87, 97, 109 Writing-table furniture, 19, 44, 55, 118 
Truité glaze, 58, 59 Wu chin glaze, 48, 66, 72 
Ts‘ai hung, 65 Wu p‘ing, 34, 121 

Ts‘ai jun t'ang mark, 147 Wu San-kuei, 1, 2 

Ts‘ang Ying-hsiian, 9, 41, 45, 49, 56, 57 Wu ts‘at, 68 

Ts‘ut, 56 Wuhu, 111 


Tung-an Hsien, 111 
T‘ung Chih, 88, 91 


T‘ung Chih list, 53, 91-93 Yamchow, 109 

Tung-ch ‘ing ware, 63, 92 Yang Kuei-fei, 121 

Tung-fang So, 128, 129 Yang ts‘ai, 66, 69 

Turquoise glaze, 51, 55, 56, 59, 64, 77 Yang-chiang, 109 
Turquoise-green, 77, 90 Yao, 121 

Twelve Embroidery Ornaments, 136 Yao pien, 54, 75 

Twin Genii, the, 106, 128, 129 Yao p‘ing, 94 

Tzt, 65 Yellow, 49, 50, 61, 65, 66, 67, 77 
Tzu chin glaze, 48, 49, 65, 72 Yen chih hung, 70 

Tz‘t Chou ware, 113, 114 Yen yen vases, 29, 34, 46, 115, 116 
Tzti Hsi, 88 Yenchowfu, 112 


Yetts, P., 131 
Yi, Prince of, 62 


Venetian glass, 17, 97 Yi-hsing, 21, 64, 103, 109, III, 112, 143, 148 
Verbiest, 97 Yin-yang, 91, 131 
Victoria and Albert Museum, 13, 14, 115 Yo Chou, 114 
Violet-blue, 23, 78 Yorke and Cocks, arms of, 72 
Vogt, M., 18 Ysbranti Ides, 13, 21 
Yu, 9, 18, 143, 148 
Yu chai, 147 
Wan shou, 137, 143 Yu féng yang lin mark, 147 
Wang Chih, 106, 123 Yu li hung, 51, 65, 68 
Wang Fang-p‘ing, 129 Yu li, 64 
Wang Ping-jung, 90, 147 Yii Shih, 131 
Wang Shéng-kao, 84 Yiian Ming Yiian, 114 
Wang Tso-t‘ing, 90, 147 Yiian Shih-k‘ai, 88, 94, 146 
Wang Tzii-ch‘iao, 130 Yiieh pai, 64 
Wang Yu, 31 Yung Chéng, 62-73 
Wares of the Ming Dynasty, 8, 19, 21, 60, 68, 104, Yung Chéng list, 39, 50, 60, 63-66, 110 


109, I10, III, 143 
Warre, A. T., 83 
Water-droppers, 19 Zimmermann, E., 37, 59, 72, 105, 112 
Water-pots, 19 Zodiac animals, 130 


The Mayflower Press, Plymouth. William Brendon & Son, Ltd. 


PLATES 





























a ay iene 











.* 






































SS 


Sher 


aro Reams 


mane be ae 
























































a 


Se rege 


ea : 
bio Ba 
en aS oe an a 


on 20s ee 
Pe ee ed 





: 23 
‘y APCs bi ema 


> y ~ - s a - a o ny = ict ale 7 ~~ é “7 7 1 - : ; ad - = : -_ 
i ; J ; § os ae a , $ - ae. 





oe » o 
¢ ' 
~ 
a 
eh * - 
a 
a 
ae 
: 
_- 
9 > 
= 
* 
a ‘ 
F * 
t 
- 
t 
\ 
, ) ! 
| i gE 
; } 
: 
| 
. | 
\ 
| 
. 














, . 
‘ 
‘a 
‘ 
¢ 
* 
‘ 
4 
. 
* 
’ 
‘ 
\ 
a ¥ a 7 ; 











pi Cialge this ima iy pen ae heb A NW Hh Cle 





























gr 











——* Vor -«. = * 4 wee 
weer ia | 








= - a. 7 
Dd ids ae 
Ween ry 



































° 
9 
° 
Q 
9 
9 
9 
° 


























ay 


. = > =e 
ea #7) 


LMG 


Af. 


fed 
" e. 
eee 
or: 
ee ——— 








we 














‘és 


f, 








| 






































| 
























































If 























o— 7% 


a a 












































bia 


i ya tien : by 
= 04 ae wee 
CS a os ae XN 
oa 

















L 











baie 





— 






§ 
' 
‘ ‘ 
- 
~ a 
ry 
a 
ix 
~ 
’ 
: ' 
\ . 
o 
~ 
7 —s _ aie 
\ 
, 
e 





oer 


| Soe at. z 





























ALEGRE SPP OGRA TOD FOE 








ene 


COPS SRF 1) eb Ci OHS 
FEF PUM OOe SOS 
ad Dale Pte ee ok! 


a7 














1 
t 
5 








7 Ss 











. = ‘ - 
eo - \ 2 a , 
See ass gi i 
ae . i. f 
: =3 af Th ; o 
5 a a 
hey a J 
¥ = ee - 
a a 4 
ss" a be - 5 : 
a 
. : , | 
= * “4 
r 
~~ i / | | 
er ae ; . 
oe we G | 
— = y . 
Piss 5 
pa 7 - 7 ¥ 
a x 
7 : | 
2 . 
a ¥ 
+. 
L T fe 
. -_ 
‘ 
ea : 
7, hs © 
7 J ” 
e = 











bottd + ibe yee~ 


aoe 


FF . 


fon 


GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 


NTN 


- 


beh} 


fe 
h 
is 


er eehst 
est isss 


States es Seint, 


ers 


xt: 


edict 
Mbtitarcierss 


Ltt 


aay 


ata 


a 


: Hest 
ate 


eer 
PATS 


ake sate aaa Leds nt <r ~ ayer 
“0 ot z ; ee : : . or Aer ea i 
Seoes 3 * : 
. ca Sfetsale 
iaeetas sie : 
Sei ee ates 3 esares: : 


: Kens Sart ees 
- ¥ ~ ee so es 
= *! $4 . Fier Sytenesese nate 
io t=. 
: ‘ : = r SoS Rene 2 = ere eS 
s ‘ 2 " : . : rotate’ . > tae y rts ote i 
E Siephers = - : ~ Shey telnet 
SS : 2 saeveenrertiiriresey ; = = 
eistets ~ : ina x .: ate g = + regis 
yet : : r ae oe ae z ais <a << 
* teeta testses > Le pacees : = 2 - « ‘ “*, Tate 
~ yt . - eer at x % e+ - « rn — e 2,2 . : 
ens ~ at - . ow . : ; 
ne : es 


sates ae 
5° de PS 8. - z 
:* peer 5 


= 
rs 
ee 


a4, 
ee 


eitelts 


‘ st 
Prats 


- ery ctst rata: ; scene Sere eeatras 
casts cut alg a rate. Csi bg ee an pts Pie Stith 


in 


i 


eres 


Potties 


BPs 


we) 


— 
hata tbtgts sas ‘ ecaeere 


ete ey 
Pr Sre~4: 
yak 


Rete) < . 
ton 


Fite 
= 


gist 
Letetitetee ie 
See eee 


mad Setates 
: Fr bere eet hipe 
rea eeerwnees sree 


ot = 
setae Siete es pretetitatates! 
Ie Os oe - Setuskesand ea et ak 
- eee a Natiek tata te tat * Prd) . z ; errs 
ete ‘ ee : tec habe tera teatet Set tg eete tii eal : $ : ¥ toe: 
~ : Soe Saeeet : si: es ar er secs tS : sete eectaners cent 
ee Ritgeaeeitts ; : eaters sis 
eer res statitatatetateret 
P eS Yeranaerey 
priescprwrit 


brorrhrs 
Leathe 


eetcest 
eee: let . 
: ; ae : eats Spt BRAS ea ae 
; : : pity Ssesreritgers 
2 -- z - : 
~ ve : a "4 ee * : <2 
eset te tees : * 2—t 





Seer ter 


=——ve~ 


